1,567
Views
13
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Travel risk in the ecotourism industry amid COVID-19 pandemic: ecotourists’ perceptions

ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, & ORCID Icon
Pages 266-294 | Received 05 Feb 2021, Accepted 28 May 2021, Published online: 13 Jun 2021

References

  • Abdelrahman, M. (2020, April 14). Personality traits, risk perception, and protective behaviors of arab residents of Qatar during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 22, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00352-7
  • Abdullah, M., Dias, C., Muley, D., & Shahin, M. (2020). Exploring the impacts of COVID-19 on travel behavior and mode preferences. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 8, 100255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2020.100255
  • Abdul Rashid, N. R. N., Jusoff, K., & Kassim, K. M. (2009). Eco-labeling perspectives amongst Malaysian consumers. Canadian Social Science, 5(2), 1–10. http://doi.org/10.3968/j.css.1923669720090502.001
  • Adam, I. (2015). Backpackers’ risk perceptions and risk reduction strategies in Ghana. Tourism Management, 49, 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.02.016
  • Amara, D. (2012, April 24–29). Tourists’ risk aversion and willingness to take risks: The case of tourists visiting Egypt after 25th January revolution. 6th World Conference for Graduate Research in Tourism, Hospitality and Leisure, 22, Fethiye. Routledge.
  • Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411
  • Anzai, A., Kobayashi, T., Linton, N. M., Kinoshita, R., Hayashi, K., Suzuki, A., Yang, Y., Jung, S., Miyama, T., Akhmetzhanov, A. R., & Nishiura, H. (2020). Assessing the impact of reduced travel on exportation dynamics of novel coronavirus infection (COVID-19). Journal of Clinical Medicine, 9(601), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9020601
  • Artuger, S. (2015). The effect of risk perceptions on tourists’ revisit intentions. European Journal of Business and Management, 7(2), 36–43.
  • Asmundson, G. J. G., & Taylor, S. (2020). How health anxiety influences responses to viral outbreaks like COVID-19: What all decision makers, health authorities, and health care professionals need to know. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 71, 102211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102211
  • Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (1988). On the evaluation of structural equation models. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 16(1), 74–94. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02723327
  • Bakar, N. A., & Rosbi, S. (2020). Effect of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) to tourism industry. International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science, 7(4), 189–193. https://doi.org/10.22161/ijaers.74.23
  • Barman-Adhikari, A., Rice, E., Bender, K., Lengnick-Hall, R., Yoshioka-Maxwell, A., & Rhoades, H. (2016). Social networking technology use and engagement in HIV related risk and protective behaviors among homeless youth. Journal of Health Communication, 21(7), 809–817. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2016.1177139
  • Basolo, V., Steinberg, L. J., Burby, R. J., Levine, J., Cruz, A. M., & Huang, C. (2009). The Effects of confidence in government and information on perceived and actual preparedness for disasters. Environment and Behavior, 41(3), 338–364. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916508317222
  • Ben-Ami, M., Hornik, J., Eden, D., & Kaplan, O. (2014). Boosting consumers’ self-efficacy by repositioning the self. European Journal of Marketing, 48(11/12), 1914–1938. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-09-2010-0502
  • Bronfman, N. C., & Vázquez, E. L. (2011). A cross-cultural study of perceived benefit versus risk as mediators in the trust-acceptance relationship. Risk Analysis, 31(12), 1919–1934. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2011.01637.x
  • Byrne, B. M. (1994). Structural equation modeling with EQS and EQS/windows: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Sage.
  • Caber, M., González-Rodríguez, M. R., Albayrak, T., & Simonetti, B. (2020). Does perceived risk really matter in travel behavior? Journal of Vacation Marketing, 26(3), 334–353. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356766720927762
  • Carballo, R. R., Leon, C. J., & Carballo, M. M. (2017). The perception of risk by international travellers. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes, 9(5), 534–542. https://doi.org/10.1108/WHATT-07-2017-0032
  • Ceballos-Lascurain, H. (1993). Ecotourism as a worldwide phenomenon. In K. Lindberg & D. E. Hawkins (Eds.), Ecotourism: A guide for planners and managers (pp. 12–14). Ecotourism Society, USA.
  • Chemli, S., Toanoglou, M., & Valeri, M. (2020). The impact of covid-19 media coverage on tourist's awareness for future travelling. Current Issues in Tourism, https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1846502.
  • Chen, J. (2021, December 18–19). Influence of COVID-19 on travel intention. 6th Annual International Conference on Social Science and Contemporary Humanity Development (SSCHD 2020) (pp. 778–782). Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.210121.153
  • Chen, G., Gully, S. M., & Eden, D. (2001). Validation of a new general self-efficacy scale. Organizational Research Methods, 4(1), 62–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/109442810141004
  • Chew, C., & Eysenbach, G. (2010). Pandemics in the age of twitter: Content analysis of tweets during the 2009 H1N1 outbreak. PloS one, 5(11). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0014118
  • Chew, E. Y. T., & Jahari, S. A. (2014). Destination image as a mediator between perceived risks and revisit intention: A case of post-disaster Japan. Tourism Management, 40, 382–393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2013.07.008
  • Chien, P. M., Sharifpour, M., Ritchie, B. W., & Watson, B. (2017). Travelers’ health risk perceptions and preventative behavior: A psychological approach. Journal of Travel Research, 56(6), 744–759. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287516665479
  • Chinazzi, M., Davis, J. T., Ajelli, M., Gioannini, C., Litvinova, M., Merler, S., Pastore y Piontti, A., Mu, K., Rossi, L., Sun, K., Viboud, C., Xiong, X., Yu, H., Halloran, M. E., Longini, I. M., & Vespignani, A. (2020). The effect of travel restrictions on the spread of the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak. Science, 368(6489), 395–400. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aba9757
  • Chiu, S. P., & Lin, S. Y. (2010). A study on myth about tourism crime victim: An example of Taiwan tourists. Police Science Bimonthly, 40(4), 201–218.
  • Clubb, A. C., & Hinkle, J. C. (2015). Protection motivation theory as a theoretical framework for understanding the Use of Protective measures. Criminal Justice Studies, 28(3), 336–355. https://doi.org/10.1080/1478601X.2015.1050590
  • Cochrane, A. (2008). Asian tourism: Growth and change (first ed.). Elsevier.
  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (Second Edition). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
  • Cui, F., Liu, Y., Chang, Y., Duan, J., & Li, J. (2016). An overview of tourism risk perception. Natural Hazards, 82(1), 643–658. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-016-2208-1
  • Department of Statistics, Malaysia. (2021). Malaysian economic statistics review. Vol. 2. https://www.dosm.gov.my/v1/index.php?r=column
  • Dorsey, S., Klein, K., Forehand, R., & Group, F. H. P. R. (1999). Parenting self-efficacy of HIV infected mothers: The role of social support. Journal of Marriage and Family, 61(2), 295–305. https://doi.org/10.2307/353749
  • Dryhurst, S., Schneider, C. R., Kerr, J., Freeman, A. L. J., Recchia, G., van der Bles, A. M., Spiegelhalter, D., & van der Linden, S. (2020). Risk perceptions of COVID-19 around the world. Journal of Risk Research, 23(7–8), 994–1006. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2020.1758193
  • Eller, L. S., Lev, E. L., Yuan, C., & Watkins, A. V. (2018). Describing self-care self-efficacy: Definition, measurement, outcomes, and implications. International Journal of Nursing Knowledge, 29(1), 38–48. https://doi.org/10.1111/2047-3095.12143
  • Fallon, L. D., & Kriwoken, L. K. (2003). Community involvement in tourism infrastructure - The case of the strahan visitor centre. Tasmania Tourism Management, 24(3), 289–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(02)00072-9
  • Fennell, D. (1999). Ecotourism: An introduction. Routledge.
  • Fetzer, T., Witte, M., Hensel, L., Jachimowicz, J. M., Haushofer, J., Ivchenko, A., Caria, C., Reutskaja, E., Roth, C., Fiorin, F., Gomez, M., Kraft-Todd, G., Goetz, F., & Yoeli, E. (2020). Global behaviors and perceptions in the COVID-19 pandemic. https://covid19-survey.org/results.html
  • Fischhoff, B., Bostrom, A., & Quadrel, M. J. (1993). Risk perception and communication. Annual Review of Public Health, 14(1), 183–203. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pu.14.050193.001151
  • Fischhoff, B., Watson, S., & Hope, C. (1984). Defining risk. Policy Science, 17(2), 123–139. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00146924
  • Fong, S. F., Lo, M. C., Songan, P., & Nair, V. (2016). Self-efficacy and sustainable rural tourism development: Local communities’ perspectives from Kuching, Sarawak. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 22(2), 147–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2016.1208668
  • Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104
  • Fraustino, J. D., Liu, B., & Jin, Y. (2012). Social media use during disasters: A review of the knowledge base and gaps. U.S. Department of Homeland Security. https://start.umd.edu/sites/default/files/files/publications/START_SocialMediaUseduringDisasters_LitReview.pdf
  • Fuchs, G. (2013). Low versus high sensation-seeking tourists: A study of backpackers’ experience risk perception. International Journal of Tourism Research, 15(1), 81–92. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.878
  • Fuchs, G., & Reichel, A. (2011). An exploratory inquiry into destination risk perceptions and risk reduction strategies of first-time Vs repeat visitors to a highly volatile destination. Tourism Management, 32(2), 266–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2010.01.012
  • Gao, J., Zheng, P., Jia, Y., Chen, H., Mao, Y., Chen, S., & Dai, J. (2020). Mental health problems and social media exposure during COVID-19 outbreak. Plos One, 15(4), e0231924. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0231924
  • Garg, A. (2013). A study of tourist perception towards travel risk factors in tourist decision making. Asian Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 7(1), 47–57.
  • Garg, A. (2015). Travel risks vs tourist decision making: A tourist perspective. International Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Systems, 8(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.21863/ijhts/2015.8.1.004
  • Garg, A., & Kumar, J. (2017). The impact of risk perception and factors on tourists’ decision making for choosing the destination uttarakhand, India. Journal of Tourism and Management Research, 2(2), 144–160. https://doi.org/10.26465/ojtmr.2017229490
  • Golets, A., Farias, J., Pilati, R., & Costa, H. (2020). COVID-19 pandemic and tourism: The impact of health risk perception and intolerance of uncertainty on travel intentions. Preprints 2020, 1–30. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202010.0432.v1
  • Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Rabin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis. 7th ed. Prentice Hall.
  • Hair, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C., & Sarstedt, M. (2016). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Sage Publications.
  • Hall, C. M., Timothy, D. J., & Duval, D. J. (2003). Safety & security in tourism: Relationships, management and marketing. Haworth Hospitality Press.
  • Hasan, M. K., Ismail, A. R., & Islam, F. (2017). Tourist risk perceptions and revisit intention: A critical review of literature. Cogent Business and Management, 4(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2017.1412874
  • Hassan, M. S., Halbusi, H. A., Najem, A., Razali, A., Williams, K. A., & Mustamil, N. M. (2020). Impact of risk perception on trust in government and self-efficiency during COVID-19 pandemic: Does social media content help users adopt preventative measures? Research Square, 1, 1–28. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-43836/v1
  • Henderson, J. (2007). Tourism crisis - causes, consequences & management. Butterworth-Heinemann.
  • Honey, M. (1999). Ecotourism and sustainable development. Who owns paradise? Island Press.
  • Hong, Y., Kim, J.-S., & Xiong, L. (2019). Media exposure and individuals’ emergency preparedness behaviors for coping with natural and human-made disasters. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 63, 82–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2019.04.005
  • Horng, J.-S., Hu, M.-L. M., Teng, C.-C. C., & Lin, L. (2014). Energy saving and carbon reduction behaviors in tourism—A perception study of Asian visitors from a protection motivation theory perspective. Asia Pacific Journal Tourism Research, 19(6), 721–735. https://doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2013.797002
  • Hoyle, R. H. (1995). The structural equation modelling approach: Basic concepts and fundamental issues. Sage Publications, Inc.
  • Huang, X., Dai, S., & Xu, H. (2020). Predicting tourists’ health risk preventative behaviour and travelling satisfaction in Tibet: Combining the theory of planned behaviour and health belief model. Tourism Management Perspectives, 33, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2019.100589
  • Hwang, D., Stewart, W. P., & Ko, D. (2012). Community behavior and sustainable rural tourism development. Journal of Travel Research, 51(3), 328–341. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287511410350
  • Ibuka, Y., Chapman, G. B., Meyers, L. A., Li, M., & Galvani, A. P. (2010). The dynamics of risk perceptions and precautionary behavior in response to 2009 (H1N1) pandemic influenza. BMC Infectious Diseases, 10(1), 296. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-10-296
  • Iwaya, G. H., Cardoso, J. G., de Sousa Júnior, J. H., & Steil, A. V. (2020). Predictors of the intention to maintain social distancing. Revista de Administração Pública, 54(4), 714–734. https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-761220200177x
  • Janmaimool, P. (2017). Application of protection motivation theory to investigate sustainable waste management behaviors. Sustainability, 9(7), 1079–1016. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9071079
  • Karout, L., Serwat, A., El Mais, H., Kassab, M., Khalid, F., & Mercedes, B. R. (2020). COVID-19 prevalence, risk perceptions, and preventive behavior in asymptomatic latino population: A cross-sectional study. Cureus, 12(9), e10707. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.10707
  • Katz-Navon, T., Naveh, E., & Stern, Z. (2007). Safety self-efficacy and safety performance. International Journal of Health Care Quality Assurance, 20(7), 572–584. https://doi.org/10.1108/09526860710822716
  • Keller, C., Visschers, V., & Siegrist, M. (2012). Affective imagery and acceptance of replacing nuclear power plants. Risk Analysis, 32(3), 464–477. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2011.01691.x
  • Kenny, D. A. (1996). Models of non-independence in dyadic research. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 13(2), 279–294. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407596132007
  • Khasawneh, M. S., & Alfandi, A. M. (2019). Determining behaviour intentions from the overall destination image and risk perception. Tourism and Hospitality Management, 25(2), 355–375. https://doi.org/10.20867/thm.25.2.6
  • Khosravi, M. (2020). Perceived risk of COVID-19 pandemic: The role of public worry and trust. Electronic Journal of General Medicine, 17(4), 1–2. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejgm/7856
  • Kim, M., Choi, K. H., & Leopkey, B. (2019). The influence of tourist risk perceptions on travel intention to mega sporting event destinations with different levels of risk. Tourism Economics, 27(3), 419–435. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816619879031
  • Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford Press.
  • Kock, F., Josiassen, A., Assaf, A. G., Karpen, I., & Farrelly, F. (2019). Tourism ethnocentrism and its effects on tourist and resident behavior. Journal of Travel Research, 58(3), 427–439. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287518755504
  • Krewski, D., Lemyre, L., Turner, M. C., Lee, J. E. C., Dallaire, C., Bouchard, L., Brand, K., & Mercier, P. (2006). Public perception of population health risks in Canada: Health hazards and sources of information. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 12(4), 626–644. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807030600561832
  • Lee, C.-K., Song, H.-J., Bendle, L. J., Kim, M.-J., & Han, H. (2012). The impact of non-pharmaceutical interventions for 2009 H1N1 influenza on travel intentions: A model of goal-directed behavior. Tourism Management, 33(1), 89–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2011.02.006
  • Li, X. (2018). Media exposure, perceived efficacy, and protective behaviors in a public health emergency. International Journal of Communication, 12, 2641–2660.
  • Li, R., Pei, S., Chen, B., Song, Y., Zhang, T., Yang, W. & Shaman, J. (2020). Substantial undocumented infection facilitates the rapid dissemination of novel coronavirus (SARS-Cov-2). Science, 368(6490), 489–493. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abb3221
  • Lin, C. A., & Lagoe, C. (2013). Effects of news media and interpersonal interactions on H1N1 risk perception and vaccination intent. Communication Research Reports, 30(2), 127–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824096.2012.762907
  • Lin, W.-Y., Zhang, X., Song, H., & Omori, K. (2016). Health information seeking in the web 2.0 Age: Trust in social media, uncertainty reduction, and self-disclosure. Computers in Human Behavior, 56, 289–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.11.055
  • Liu, Y., & Jang, S. (2009). Perceptions of Chinese restaurants in the U.S.: What affects customer satisfaction and behavioral intentions? International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28(3), 338–348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2008.10.008
  • Liu, C., & Liu, Y. (2020). Media exposure and anxiety during COVID-19: The mediation effect of media vicarious traumatization. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(13), 4720. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134720
  • Liu, B., Schroeder, A., Pennington-Gray, L., & Farajat, S. A. D. (2016). Source market perceptions: How risky is Jordan to travel to? Journal of Destination Marketing and Management, 5(4), 294–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2016.08.005
  • Lorig, K. R., & Holman, H. R. (2003). Self-management education: History, definition, outcomes, and mechanisms. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 26(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324796ABM2601_01
  • Mark, W. W. S., Law, R. W., Woo, J., Cheung, F. M., & Lee, D. (2009). Social support and psychological adjustment to SARS: The mediating role of self-care self-efficacy. Psychology Health, 24(2), 161–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870440701447649
  • Marschalko, E. E., Kotta, I., Kalcza-Janosi, K., Szabo, K., & Jancso-Farcas, S. (2021). Psychological predictors of COVID-19 prevention behavior in Hungarian women across different generations. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 596543. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.596543
  • Matiza, T. (2020). Post-COVID 19 crisis travel behaviour: Towards mitigating the effects of perceived risk. Journal of Tourism Future. https://doi.org/10.1108/JTF-04-2020-0063
  • McCool, J., Ameratunga, S., Moran, K., & Robinson, E. (2009). Taking a risk perception approach to improving beach swimming safety. International Journal Behavior Medicine, 16(4), 360–366. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12529-009-9042-8
  • Mitomo, H., Otsuka, T., & Kimura, M. (2012, November 18–21). The role of media and ICT to motivate people to take post-quake recovery action: An evidence of the “pythagorean effect”. ITS 2012 19th Biennial Conference, Bangkok, Thailand.
  • Moran, L. (2011). Rock based fisher safety promotion: Five years on. International Journal of Aquatic Research and Education, 5(2), 164–173. https://doi.org/10.25035/ijare.10.02.01
  • Mulia, D. (2019). The differences in risk perception between millennials and baby boomers in online transactions. Jurnal Manajemen, 23(3), 375. https://doi.org/10.24912/jm.v23i3.570
  • Murthy, E. (2008). Introduction tourism & hospitality ethics. ABD Publishers.
  • Neuburger, L., & Egger, R. (2021). Travel risk perception and travel behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic 2020: A case study of the DACH region. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(7), 1003–1016. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1803807
  • Nik Alif, A. N. H., Abdullah, M. Y., Zaimatul, A., Roslizawati, C. A., Iskandar, F. R. S., Nurzehan, A. B., Asyraf, M. N. M., & Boyd, S. F. (2019). The effect of domestic tourist perceived risk on revisit intention in Malaysia. International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering, 8(10), 4591–4596. https://doi.org/10.35940/ijitee.J1085.0881019
  • Olya, H. G. T., & Al-Ansi, A. (2018). Risk assessment of halal products and services: Implication for tourism industry. Tourism Management, 65, 279–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.10.015
  • Othman, N. A., Anwar, N. M., & Kain, L. (2010, April 22–28). Sustainability analysis: Various impact on Taman Negara, Pahang, Malaysia. The 4th World Conference for Graduate Research in Tourism, Hospitality and Leisure, Antalya, Turkey (pp. 399–411).
  • Packer, J., & Ballantyne, R. (2013). Developing ecotourists’ environmentally sustainable behaviour. In R. Ballantyne & J. Packer (Eds.), International handbook on ecotourism (pp. 192–202). Edward Elgar Publishing.
  • Park, K., & Reisinger, Y. (2010). Differences in the perceived influence of natural disasters and travel risk on international travel. Tourism Geographies, 12(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616680903493621
  • Parks, T. H., Parks, T. A., & Allen, C. (2009). The development of a framework for studying ecotourism. International Journal of Management, 26(1), 89–98.
  • Pine, R., & Mckercher, B. (2004). The impact of SARS on Hong Kong tourism industry. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 16(2), 139–143. https://doi.org/10.1108/09596110410520034
  • Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behaviour Research Methods, 40(3), 879–891. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879
  • Prentice-Dunn, S., & Rogers, R. W. (1986). Protection motivation theory and preventive health: Beyond the health belief model. Health Education Research, 1(3), 153–161. https://doi.org/10.1093/her/1.3.153
  • Prime Minister office of Malaysia (PMO). (2020). Movement control order: FAQ & info. https://www.pmo.gov.my/2020/03/movement-control-order-faq-info/
  • Qi, C. X., Gibson, H. J., & Zhang, J. J. (2009). Perceptions of risk and travel intentions: The case of China and The Beijing olympic games. Journal of Sport & Tourism, 14(1), 43–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/14775080902847439
  • Rahim, R. (2020). Covid-19: Tourism Ministry cancels visit Malaysia year 2020. Retrieved from https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2020/03/18/covid-19-tourism-ministry-cancelsvisit-m039sia-year-2020
  • Reisinger, Y., & Mavondo, F. (2005). Travel anxiety and intentions to travel internationally: Implications of travel risk perception. Journal of Travel Research, 43(3), 212–225. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287504272017
  • Reynolds, B., & Seeger, M. (2005). Crisis and emergency risk communication as an integrative model. Journal of Health Communication, 10(1), 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730590904571
  • Rogers, R. W. (1975). A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change. The Journal of Psychology, 91(1), 93–114. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1975.9915803
  • Rogers, R. W. (1983). Cognitive and physiological process in fear appeals and attitude change: A revised theory of protection motivation. In J. Cacioppo & R. Petty (Eds.), Social psychophysiology (pp. 153–174). The Guilford Press.
  • Rogers, R. W., & Prentice, D. S. (1997). Protection motivation theory. Handbook of behaviour research I: Personal and social determinants.
  • Sandra, M. S. C., Javier, C. R. L., Guzman, M. F., & Fernando, J. F. G. (2020). Impact of the perceived risk from covid 19 on intention to travel. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(7), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1829571
  • Schultz, F., Utz, S., & Göritz, A. (2011). Is the medium the message? Perceptions of and reactions to crisis communication via twitter, blogs and traditional media. Public Relations Review, 37(1), 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2010.12.001
  • Shahzalal, M. (2016). The influence of tourists’ attitude and self-efficacy belief in adopting responsible Behavior in Bangladesh. Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Management, 4(4), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.17265/2328-2169/2016.08.003
  • Sheeran, P., Harris, P. R., & Epton, T. (2014). Does heightening risk appraisals change people’s intentions and behavior? A meta-analysis of experimental studies. Psychological Bulletin, 140(2), 511–543. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033065
  • Shen, H., Bentler, P. M., & Comrey, A. L. (1995). A comparison of models of medical school student selection. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 2(2), 93–100. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519509539998
  • Siegrist, M., & Cvetkovich, G. (2000). Perception of hazards: The role of social trust and knowledge. Risk Analysis, 20(5), 713–720. https://doi.org/10.1111/0272-4332.205064
  • Signorini, A., Segre, A. M., & Polgreen, P. M. (2011). The use of Twitter to track levels of disease activity and public concern in The US during the influenza A H1N1 pandemic. PloS one, 6(5), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0019467
  • Slovic, P. E. (2000). The perception of risk. Earthscan publications.
  • Song, S., & Yoo, M. (2016). The role of social media during the pre-purchase stage. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology, 7(1), 84–99. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHTT-11-2014-0067
  • Tabernero, C., Mayen, R. C., Luque, B., & Cuadrado, E. (2020). Social values, self- and collective efficacy explaining behaviours in coping With covid-19: Self-interested consumption and physical distancing in the first 10 days Of confinement in Spain. Plos One, 15(9), e0238682. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238682
  • Tavitiyaman, P., & Qu, H. (2013). Destination image and behavior intention of travellers to Thailand: The moderating effect of perceived risk. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 30(3), 169–185. https://doi.org/10.1080/10548408.2013.774911
  • Teeroovengadum, V., Seetanah, B., Bindah, E., Pooloo, A., & Veerasawmy, I. (2021). Minimising perceived travel risk in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic to boost travel and tourism. Tourism Review, https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-05-2020-0195
  • Tran, B. L., Chen, C. C., Tseng, W. C., & Liao, S. Y. (2020). Tourism under the early phase of COVID 19 in four APEC economics; An estimation with special focus on SARS experiences. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(20), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17207543
  • Triarchi, E., & Karamanis, K. (2017). Alternative tourism development: A theoretical background. World Journal of Business and Management, 3(1), 35–54. https://doi.org/10.5296/wjbm.v3i1.11198
  • Tsai, C. Y. (2010). Applying the theory of planned behavior to explore the independent travelers’ behavior. African Journal of Business Management, 4(2), 221–234. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJBM.9000096
  • Tumlison, C., Moyer, R. M., & Song, G. (2017). The origin and role of trust in local policy elites’ perceptions of high-voltage power line installations in the state of Arkansas. Risk Analysis, 37(5), 1018–1036. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.12662
  • United Nations. (2020). Policy brief: COVID 19 and transforming tourism. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/sg_policy_brief_covid19_tourism_august_2020.pdf (accessed on 16 August 2020)
  • Vainio, A., Paloniemi, R., & Varho, V. (2017). Weighing the risks of nuclear energy and climate change: Trust in different information sources, perceived risks, and willingness to pay for alternatives to nuclear power. Risk Analysis, 37(3), 557–569. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.12640
  • Verkoeyen, S., & Nepal, S. K. (2019). Understanding scuba divers’ response to coral bleaching: An application of protection motivation theory. Journal of Environmental Management, 231, 869–877. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.10.030
  • Vos, S. C., & Buckner, M. M. (2016). Social media messages in an emerging health crisis: Tweeting bird flu. Journal of Health Communication, 21(3), 301–308. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2015.1064495
  • Wachyuni, S. S., & Kusumaningrum, D. A. (2020). The effect of COVID-19 pandemic: How are the future tourist behavior? Journal of Education, Society and Behavioural Science, 33(4), 67–76. https://doi.org/10.9734/jesbs/2020/v33i430219
  • Wang, J., Liu-Lastres, B., Ritchie, B. W., & Mills, D. J. (2019). Travellers’ self-protections against health risks: An application of the full protection motivation theory. Annals of Tourism Research, 78, 102743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2019.102743
  • Wang, F., Xue, T., Wang, T., & Wu, B. (2020). The mechanism of tourism risk perception in severe epidemic—The antecedent effect of place Image depicted in anti-epidemic music videos and the moderating effect of visiting history. Sustainability, 12(13), 5454. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12135454
  • Wilder-Smith, A. (2006). The severe acute respiratory syndrome: Impact on travel and tourism. Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease, 4(2), 53–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2005.04.004
  • Williams, C. C., & Kayaoglu, A. (2020). COVID-19 and undeclared work: Impacts and policy responses in Europe. The Service Industries Journal, 40(13-14), 914–931. https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2020.1757073
  • Wogalter, M. S., Conzola, V. C., & Vigilante, W. J. (1999, September 17–October 1). Applying usability engineering principles to the Design and Testing of Warning Messages. Paper presented at the 43rd Annual Meeting of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, Houston, TX, USA.
  • Wolff, K., Larsena, S., & Øgaard, T. (2019). How to define and measure risk perceptions. Annals of Tourism Research, 79, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2019.102759
  • World Health Organization, WHO. (2020a). Novel coronavirus - China, 2020. Retrieved April 14, 2020 from https://www.who.int/csr/don/12-january-2020-novel-coronavirus-china/en/
  • World Health Organization, WHO. (2020b). Novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) Situation Report-21, 2020. Retrieved April 14, 2020 from https://www.who.int/docs/defaultsource/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200210-sitrep-21-ncov.pdf
  • World Tourism Organization, UNWTO. (2020). Tourism and COVID-19. Retrieved April 14, 2020 from https://webunwto.s3.eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/2020 03/COVID19_NewDS_0.pdf
  • Zaiton, S. (2008). Willingness to pay in Taman Negara: A contingent valuation method. International Journal of Economics and Management, 2(1), 81–94.
  • Zeballos, R. D. R., Lopez Jaldin, M. L., Canaviri, N. B., Portugal Escalante, L. F., Alanes Fernández, A. M. C., et al. (2021). Social media exposure, risk perception, preventive behaviors and attitudes during the COVID-19 epidemic in La Paz, Bolivia: A cross sectional study. PLOS ONE, 16(1), e0245859. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245859
  • Zheng, X. (2003). Travel safety. China Tourism Press.
  • Zheng, X., & Zhang, J. F. (2002). Travel safety theory and practice: Case study of Fujian Province, China. Hong Kong Education and Social Scientific Research Society.
  • Zhu, W., & Yao, N. (2019). Public risk perception and intention to take actions on city smog in China. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 25(6), 1531–1546. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1471340

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.