Further understanding of the pathology of glioma: implications for the clinic

References

• Louis DN, Ohgaki H, Wiestler OD, et al. WHO classification of tumors of the central nervous system (Eds. Bosman, FT, Jaffe, ES, Lakhani, SR, Ohgaki, H). Lyon: Inernational Agency for Research on Cancer; 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Ohgaki H, Dessen P, Jourde B, et al. Genetic pathways to glioblastoma: a population-based study. Cancer Res. 2004;64(19):6892–6899.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohgaki H, Kleihues P. The definition of primary and secondary glioblastoma. Clin Cancer Res. 2013;19(4):764–772.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Homma T, Fukushima T, Vaccarella S, et al. Correlation among pathology, genotype, and patient outcomes in glioblastoma. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2006;65(9):846–854.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coons SW, Johnson PC, Scheithauer BW, et al. Improving diagnostic accuracy and interobserver concordance in the classification and grading of primary gliomas. Cancer. 1997;79(7):1381–1393.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gravendeel LA, Kouwenhoven MC, Gevaert O, et al. Intrinsic gene expression profiles of gliomas are a better predictor of survival than histology. Cancer Res. 2009;69(23):9065–9072.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Den Bent MJ. Interobserver variation of the histopathological diagnosis in clinical trials on glioma: a clinician’s perspective. Acta Neuropathol. 2010;120(3):297–304.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okamoto Y, Di Patre PL, Burkhard C, et al. Population-based study on incidence, survival rates, and genetic alterations of low-grade diffuse astrocytomas and oligodendrogliomas. Acta Neuropathol. 2004;108(1):49–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeuken JW, Von Deimling A, Wesseling P. Molecular pathogenesis of oligodendroglial tumors. J Neurooncol. 2004;70(2):161–181.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reifenberger G, Louis DN. Oligodendroglioma: toward molecular definitions in diagnostic neuro-oncology. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2003;62(2):111–126.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Louis DN, Ohgaki H, Wiestler OD, et al. WHO classification of tumors of the central nervous system (Revised 4th edition). Lyon: IARC; 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Brat DJ, Cagle PT, Dillon DA, et al. Template for reporting results of biomarker testing of specimens from patients with tumors of the central nervous system. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2015;139(9):1087–1093.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parsons DW, Jones S, Zhang X, et al. An integrated genomic analysis of human glioblastoma multiforme. Science. 2008;321(5897):1807–1812.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yan H, Parsons DW, Jin G, et al. IDH1 and IDH2 mutations in gliomas. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(8):765–773.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartmann C, Meyer J, Balss J, et al. Type and frequency of IDH1 and IDH2 mutations are related to astrocytic and oligodendroglial differentiation and age: a study of 1,010 diffuse gliomas. Acta Neuropathol. 2009;118(4):469–474.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watanabe T, Nobusawa S, Kleihues P, et al. IDH1 mutations are early events in the development of astrocytomas and oligodendrogliomas. Am J Pathol. 2009;174(4):1149–1153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang J, Wu G, Miller CP, et al. Whole-genome sequencing identifies genetic alterations in pediatric low-grade gliomas. Nat Genet. 2013;45(6):602–612.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huse JT, Nafa K, Shukla N, et al. High frequency of IDH-1 mutation links glioneuronal tumors with neuropil-like islands to diffuse astrocytomas. Acta Neuropathol. 2011;122(3):367–369.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai A, Kharbanda S, Pope WB, et al. Evidence for sequenced molecular evolution of IDH1 mutant glioblastoma from a distinct cell of origin. J Clin Oncol. 2011;29(34):4482–4490.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yip S, Butterfield YS, Morozova O, et al. Concurrent CIC mutations, IDH mutations, and 1p/19q loss distinguish oligodendrogliomas from other cancers. J Pathol. 2012;226(1):7–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brat DJ, Verhaak RG, Aldape KD, et al. Comprehensive, integrative genomic analysis of diffuse lower-grade gliomas. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(26):2481–2498.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zou P, Xu H, Chen P, et al. IDH1/IDH2 mutations define the prognosis and molecular profiles of patients with gliomas: a meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2013;8(7):e68782.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Houillier C, Wang X, Kaloshi G, et al. IDH1 or IDH2 mutations predict longer survival and response to temozolomide in low-grade gliomas. Neurology. 2010;75(17):1560–1566.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leu S, Von Felten S, Frank S, et al. IDH/MGMT-driven molecular classification of low-grade glioma is a strong predictor for long-term survival. Neuro Oncol. 2013;15(4):469–479.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun H, Yin L, Li S, et al. Prognostic significance of IDH mutation in adult low-grade gliomas: a meta-analysis. J Neurooncol. 2013;113(2):277–284.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabha N, Knobbe CB, Maganti M, et al. Analysis of IDH mutation, 1p/19q deletion, and PTEN loss delineates prognosis in clinical low-grade diffuse gliomas. Neuro Oncol. 2014;16(7):914–923.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eckel-Passow JE, Lachance DH, Molinaro AM, et al. Glioma groups based on 1p/19q, IDH, and TERT promoter mutations in tumors. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(26):2499–2508.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang ZY, Chan AK, Ding XJ, et al. TERT promoter mutations contribute to IDH mutations in predicting differential responses to adjuvant therapies in WHO grade II and III diffuse gliomas. Oncotarget. 2015;6(28):24871–24883.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dang L, White DW, Gross S, et al. Cancer-associated IDH1 mutations produce 2-hydroxyglutarate. Nature. 2009;462(7274):739–744.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chowdhury R, Yeoh KK, Tian YM, et al. The oncometabolite 2-hydroxyglutarate inhibits histone lysine demethylases. EMBO Rep. 2011;12(5):463–469.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loenarz C, Schofield CJ. Expanding chemical biology of 2-oxoglutarate oxygenases. Nat Chem Biol. 2008;4(3):152–156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malzkorn B, Wolter M, Riemenschneider MJ, et al. Unraveling the glioma epigenome: from molecular mechanisms to novel biomarkers and therapeutic targets. Brain Pathol. 2011;21(6):619–632.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noushmehr H, Weisenberger DJ, Diefes K, et al. Identification of a CpG island methylator phenotype that defines a distinct subgroup of glioma. Cancer Cell. 2010;17(5):510–522.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christensen BC, Smith AA, Zheng S, et al. DNA methylation, isocitrate dehydrogenase mutation, and survival in glioma. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2011;103(2):143–153.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Laffaire J, Everhard S, Idbaih A, et al. Methylation profiling identifies 2 groups of gliomas according to their tumorigenesis. Neuro Oncol. 2011;13(1):84–98.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turcan S, Rohle D, Goenka A, et al. IDH1 mutation is sufficient to establish the glioma hypermethylator phenotype. Nature. 2012;483(7390):479–483.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lu C, Ward PS, Kapoor GS, et al. IDH mutation impairs histone demethylation and results in a block to cell differentiation. Nature. 2012;483(7390):474–478.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duncan CG, Barwick BG, Jin G, et al. A heterozygous IDH1R132H/WT mutation induces genome-wide alterations in DNA methylation. Genome Res. 2012;22(12):2339–2355.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ceccarelli M, Barthel FP, Malta TM, et al. Molecular profiling reveals biologically discrete subsets and pathways of progression in diffuse glioma. Cell. 2016;164(3):550–563.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flavahan WA, Drier Y, Liau BB, et al. Insulator dysfunction and oncogene activation in IDH mutant gliomas. Nature. 2016;529(7584):110–114.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laird PW. The power and the promise of DNA methylation markers. Nat Rev Cancer. 2003;3(4):253–266.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capper D, Weissert S, Balss J, et al. Characterization of R132H mutation-specific IDH1 antibody binding in brain tumors. Brain Pathol. 2010;20(1):245–254.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horbinski C, Kofler J, Kelly LM, et al. Diagnostic use of IDH1/2 mutation analysis in routine clinical testing of formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded glioma tissues. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2009;68(12):1319–1325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van den Bent MJ, Hartmann C, Preusser M, et al. Interlaboratory comparison of IDH mutation detection. J Neurooncol. 2013;112(2):173–178.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rohle D, Popovici-Muller J, Palaskas N, et al. An inhibitor of mutant IDH1 delays growth and promotes differentiation of glioma cells. Science. 2013;340(6132):626–630.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turcan S, Fabius AW, Borodovsky A, et al. Efficient induction of differentiation and growth inhibition in IDH1 mutant glioma cells by the DNMT inhibitor decitabine. Oncotarget. 2013;4(10):1729–1736.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schumacher T, Bunse L, Pusch S, et al. A vaccine targeting mutant IDH1 induces antitumour immunity. Nature. 2014;512(7514):324–327.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pellegatta S, Valletta L, Corbetta C, et al. Effective immuno-targeting of the IDH1 mutation R132H in a murine model of intracranial glioma. Acta Neuropathol Commun. 2015;3:4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith JS, Perry A, Borell TJ, et al. Alterations of chromosome arms 1p and 19q as predictors of survival in oligodendrogliomas, astrocytomas, and mixed oligoastrocytomas. J Clin Oncol. 2000;18(3):636–645.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ino Y, Betensky RA, Zlatescu MC, et al. Molecular subtypes of anaplastic oligodendroglioma: implications for patient management at diagnosis. Clin Cancer Res. 2001;7(4):839–845.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cairncross JG, Wang M, Jenkins RB, et al. Benefit from procarbazine, lomustine, and vincristine in oligodendroglial tumors is associated with mutation of IDH. J Clin Oncol. 2014;32(8):783–790.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bettegowda C, Agrawal N, Jiao Y, et al. Mutations in CIC and FUBP1 contribute to human oligodendroglioma. Science. 2011;333(6048):1453–1455.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eisenreich S, Abou-El-Ardat K, Szafranski K, et al. Novel CIC point mutations and an exon-spanning, homozygous deletion identified in oligodendroglial tumors by a comprehensive genomic approach including transcriptome sequencing. PLoS One. 2013;8(9):e76623.
   Google Scholar
• Yip S, Iafrate AJ, Louis DN. Molecular diagnostic testing in malignant gliomas: a practical update on predictive markers. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2008;67(1):1–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartzentruber J, Korshunov A, Liu XY, et al. Driver mutations in histone H3.3 and chromatin remodelling genes in paediatric glioblastoma. Nature. 2012;482(7384):226–231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jiao Y, Killela PJ, Reitman ZJ, et al. Frequent ATRX, CIC, FUBP1 and IDH1 mutations refine the classification of malignant gliomas. Oncotarget. 2012;3(7):709–722.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kannan K, Inagaki A, Silber J, et al. Whole-exome sequencing identifies ATRX mutation as a key molecular determinant in lower-grade glioma. Oncotarget. 2012;3(10):1194–1203.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu XY, Gerges N, Korshunov A, et al. Frequent ATRX mutations and loss of expression in adult diffuse astrocytic tumors carrying IDH1/IDH2 and TP53 mutations. Acta Neuropathol. 2012;124(5):615–625.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heaphy CM, De Wilde RF, Jiao Y, et al. Altered telomeres in tumors with ATRX and DAXX mutations. Science. 2011;333(6041):425.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reuss DE, Sahm F, Schrimpf D, et al. ATRX and IDH1-R132H immunohistochemistry with subsequent copy number analysis and IDH sequencing as a basis for an “integrated” diagnostic approach for adult astrocytoma, oligodendroglioma and glioblastoma. Acta Neuropathol. 2015;129(1):133–146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sahm F, Reuss D, Koelsche C, et al. Farewell to oligoastrocytoma: in situ molecular genetics favor classification as either oligodendroglioma or astrocytoma. Acta Neuropathol. 2014;128(4):551–559.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiestler B, Capper D, Holland-Letz T, et al. ATRX loss refines the classification of anaplastic gliomas and identifies a subgroup of IDH mutant astrocytic tumors with better prognosis. Acta Neuropathol. 2013;126(3):443–451.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abedalthagafi M, Phillips JJ, Kim GE, et al. The alternative lengthening of telomere phenotype is significantly associated with loss of ATRX expression in high-grade pediatric and adult astrocytomas: a multi-institutional study of 214 astrocytomas. Mod Pathol. 2013;26(11):1425–1432.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gielen GH, Gessi M, Buttarelli FR, et al. Genetic analysis of diffuse high-grade astrocytomas in infancy defines a novel molecular entity. Brain Pathol. 2015;25(4):409–417.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flynn RL, Cox KE, Jeitany M, et al. Alternative lengthening of telomeres renders cancer cells hypersensitive to ATR inhibitors. Science. 2015;347(6219):273–277.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koschmann C, Calinescu AA, Nunez FJ, et al. ATRX loss promotes tumor growth and impairs nonhomologous end joining DNA repair in glioma. Sci Transl Med. 2016;8:328.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Killela PJ, Pirozzi CJ, Healy P, et al. Mutations in IDH1, IDH2, and in the TERT promoter define clinically distinct subgroups of adult malignant gliomas. Oncotarget. 2014;5(6):1515–1525.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Killela PJ, Reitman ZJ, Jiao Y, et al. TERT promoter mutations occur frequently in gliomas and a subset of tumors derived from cells with low rates of self-renewal. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013;110(15):6021–6026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell RJ, Rube HT, Kreig A, et al. Cancer. The transcription factor GABP selectively binds and activates the mutant TERT promoter in cancer. Science. 2015;348(6238):1036–1039.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell RJ, Rube HT, Xavier-Magalhaes A, et al. Understanding TERT promoter mutations: a common path to immortality. Mol Cancer Res. 2016;14(4):315–323.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koelsche C, Sahm F, Capper D, et al. Distribution of TERT promoter mutations in pediatric and adult tumors of the nervous system. Acta Neuropathol. 2013;126(6):907–915.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Labussiere M, Boisselier B, Mokhtari K, et al. Combined analysis of TERT, EGFR, and IDH status defines distinct prognostic glioblastoma classes. Neurology. 2014;83(13):1200–1206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shankar GM, Francis JM, Rinne ML, et al. Rapid intraoperative molecular characterization of glioma. JAMA Oncol. 2015;1(5):662–667.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cryan JB, Haidar S, Ramkissoon LA, et al. Clinical multiplexed exome sequencing distinguishes adult oligodendroglial neoplasms from astrocytic and mixed lineage gliomas. Oncotarget. 2014;5(18):8083–8092.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suzuki H, Aoki K, Chiba K, et al. Mutational landscape and clonal architecture in grade II and III gliomas. Nat Genet. 2015;47(5):458–468.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiestler B, Capper D, Sill M, et al. Integrated DNA methylation and copy-number profiling identify three clinically and biologically relevant groups of anaplastic glioma. Acta Neuropathol. 2014;128(4):561–571.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hegi ME, Diserens AC, Gorlia T, et al. MGMT gene silencing and benefit from temozolomide in glioblastoma. N Engl J Med. 2005;352(10):997–1003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cahill DP, Sloan AE, Nahed BV, et al. The role of neuropathology in the management of patients with diffuse low grade glioma: A systematic review and evidence-based clinical practice guideline. J Neurooncol. 2015;125(3):531–549.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Stefano AL, Fucci A, Frattini V, et al. Detection, characterization, and inhibition of FGFR-TACC fusions in IDH wild-type glioma. Clin Cancer Res. 2015;21(14):3307–3317.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouffet E, Tabori U, Huang A, et al. Possibilities of new therapeutic strategies in brain tumors. Cancer Treat Rev. 2010;36(4):335–341.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rutka JT, Kuo JS, Carter M, et al. Advances in the treatment of pediatric brain tumors. Expert Rev Neurother. 2004;4(5):879–893.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Freeman CR, Perilongo G. Chemotherapy for brain stem gliomas. Childs Nerv Syst. 1999;15(10):545–553.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sturm D, Witt H, Hovestadt V, et al. Hotspot mutations in H3F3A and IDH1 define distinct epigenetic and biological subgroups of glioblastoma. Cancer Cell. 2012;22(4):425–437.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan KM, Fang D, Gan H, et al. The histone H3.3K27M mutation in pediatric glioma reprograms H3K27 methylation and gene expression. Genes Dev. 2013;27(9):985–990.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khuong-Quang D-A, Buczkowicz P, Rakopoulos P, et al. K27M mutation in histone H3.3 defines clinically and biologically distinct subgroups of pediatric diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas. Acta Neuropathol. 2012;124(3):439–447.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fontebasso AM, Papillon-Cavanagh S, Schwartzentruber J, et al. Recurrent somatic mutations in ACVR1 in pediatric midline high-grade astrocytoma. Nat Genet. 2014;46(5):462–466.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horbinski C, Kofler J, Yeaney G, et al. Isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 analysis differentiates gangliogliomas from infiltrative gliomas. Brain Pathol. 2011;21(5):564–574.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korshunov A, Meyer J, Capper D, et al. Combined molecular analysis of BRAF and IDH1 distinguishes pilocytic astrocytoma from diffuse astrocytoma. Acta Neuropathol. 2009;118(3):401–405.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dougherty MJ, Santi M, Brose MS, et al. Activating mutations in BRAF characterize a spectrum of pediatric low-grade gliomas. Neuro Oncol. 2010;12(7):621–630.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones DT, Kocialkowski S, Liu L, et al. Tandem duplication producing a novel oncogenic BRAF fusion gene defines the majority of pilocytic astrocytomas. Cancer Res. 2008;68(21):8673–8677.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schindler G, Capper D, Meyer J, et al. Analysis of BRAF V600E mutation in 1,320 nervous system tumors reveals high mutation frequencies in pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma, ganglioglioma and extra-cerebellar pilocytic astrocytoma. Acta Neuropathol. 2011;121(3):397–405.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dias-Santagata D, Lam Q, Vernovsky K, et al. BRAF V600E mutations are common in pleomorphic xanthoastrocytoma: diagnostic and therapeutic implications. PLoS One. 2011;6(3):e17948.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horbinski C, Nikiforova MN, Hagenkord JM, et al. Interplay among BRAF, p16, p53, and MIB1 in pediatric low-grade gliomas. Neuro Oncol. 2012;14(6):777–789.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahiya S, Haydon DH, Alvarado D, et al. BRAF(V600E) mutation is a negative prognosticator in pediatric ganglioglioma. Acta Neuropathol. 2013;125(6):901–910.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koelsche C, Sahm F, Paulus W, et al. BRAF V600E expression and distribution in desmoplastic infantile astrocytoma/ganglioglioma. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol. 2014;40(3):337–344.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koelsche C, Wohrer A, Jeibmann A, et al. Mutant BRAF V600E protein in ganglioglioma is predominantly expressed by neuronal tumor cells. Acta Neuropathol. 2013;125(6):891–900.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicolaides TP, Li H, Solomon DA, et al. Targeted therapy for BRAFV600E malignant astrocytoma. Clin Cancer Res. 2011;17(24):7595–7604.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson GW, Orr BA, Gajjar A. Complete clinical regression of a BRAF V600E-mutant pediatric glioblastoma multiforme after BRAF inhibitor therapy. BMC Cancer. 2014;14:258.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Menzies AM, Long GV. Systemic treatment for BRAF-mutant melanoma: where do we go next? Lancet Oncol. 2014;15(9):e371–e381.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor MD, Poppleton H, Fuller C, et al. Radial glia cells are candidate stem cells of ependymoma. Cancer Cell. 2005;8(4):323–335.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brandes AA, Cavallo G, Reni M, et al. A multicenter retrospective study of chemotherapy for recurrent intracranial ependymal tumors in adults by the Gruppo Italiano Cooperativo di Neuro-Oncologia. Cancer. 2005;104(1):143–148.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geyer JR, Sposto R, Jennings M, et al. Multiagent chemotherapy and deferred radiotherapy in infants with malignant brain tumors: a report from the Children’s Cancer Group. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23(30):7621–7631.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korshunov A, Witt H, Hielscher T, et al. Molecular staging of intracranial ependymoma in children and adults. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28(19):3182–3190.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mack SC, Witt H, Piro RM, et al. Epigenomic alterations define lethal CIMP-positive ependymomas of infancy. Nature. 2014;506(7489):445–450.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parker M, Mohankumar KM, Punchihewa C, et al. C11orf95-RELA fusions drive oncogenic NF-kappaB signalling in ependymoma. Nature. 2014;506(7489):451–455.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar