Anti-epileptic drugs in pediatric traumatic brain injury

References

• Faul M, Xu L, Wald MM, et al. Traumatic brain injury in the United States: emergency department visits, hospitalizations and deaths 2002–2006. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control; 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Pruitt BA. Editor’s note. J Trauma. 2002;54:S235.
   Google Scholar
• Annegers JF, Grabow JD, Groover RV, et al. Seizures after head trauma: a population study. Neurology. 1980;30:683–689.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Appleton RE, Demellweek C. Post-traumatic epilepsy in children requiring inpatient rehabilitation following head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2002;72:669–672.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hahn YS, Fuchs S, Flannery AM, et al. Factors influencing posttraumatic seizures in children. Neurosurgery. 1988;22:864–867.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park JT, Chugani HT. Post-traumatic epilepsy in children – experience from a tertiary referral center. Pediatr Neurol. 2015;52:174–181.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keenan HT, Runyan DK, Marshall SW, et al. A population-based comparison of clinical and outcome characteristics of young children with serious inflicted and noninflicted traumatic brain injury. Pediatrics. 2004;114:633–639.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arndt DH, Lerner JT, Matsumoto JH, et al. Subclinical early posttraumatic seizures detected by continuous EEG monitoring in a consecutive pediatric cohort. Epilepsia. 2013;54:1780–1788.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huguenard AL, Miller BA, Sarda S, et al. Mild traumatic brain injury in children is associated with a low risk for posttraumatic seizures. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2016;17:476–482.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiaretti A, Piastra M, Pietrini D, et al. Prognostic factors and outcome of children with severe head injury: an 8-year experience. Child Nerv Syst. 2002;18:129–136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emanuelson I, Uvebrant P. Occurrence of epilepsy during the first 10 years after traumatic brain injury acquired in childhood up to the age of 18 years in the south western Swedish population-based series. Brain Inj. 2009;23:612–616.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young B, Rapp RP, Norton JA, et al. Failure of prophylactically administered phenytoin to prevent post-traumatic seizures in children. Childs Brain. 1983;10:185–192.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Barlow KM, Spowart JJ, Minns RA. Early posttrauamtic seizures in non-accidental head injury: relation to outcome. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2000;42:591–594.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Neill BR, Handler MH, Tong S, et al. Incidence of seizures on continuous EEG monitoring following traumatic brain injury in children. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2015;16:167–176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asikainen I, Kaste M, Sarna S. Early and late posttraumatic seizures in traumatic brain injury rehabilitation patients: brain injury factors causing late seizures and influence of seizures on long-term outcome. Epilepsia. 1999;40:584–589.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babikian T, Merkley T, Savage RC, et al. Chronic aspects of pediatric traumatic brain injury: review of the literature. J Neurotrauma. 2015;32:1849–1860.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Statler KD. Pediatric posttraumatic seizures: epidemiology, putative mechanisms of epileptogenesis and promising investigational progress. Dev Neurosci. 2006;28:354–363.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis RJ, Yee L, Inkelis SH, et al. Clinical predictors of post-trauamtic seizures in children with head trauma. Ann Emerg Med. 1993;22:1114–1118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brain Trauma Foundation, Inc. American Association of Neurological Surgeons: guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury, 3rd edition. J Neurotrauma. 2007;24:S1–S106.
   Google Scholar
• Kochanek PM, Carney N, Adelson PD, et al. Guidelines for the acute medical management of severe traumatic brain injury in infants, children, and adolescents–second edition. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2012;13(Suppl 1):S1–S82.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kochanek PM, Carney N, Adelson PD, et al. The role of anti-seizure prophylaxis following severe pediatric traumatic brain injury. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2012;13(Suppl):S72–S82.
   Google Scholar
• Giza CC, Mink RB, Madikians A. Pediatric traumatic brain injury: not just little adults. Curr Opinions Crit Care. 2007;13:143–152.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen FE. Acute and chronic effects of seizures in the developing brain: experimental models. Epilepsia. 1999;40(Suppl 1):S51–S58. discussion S64-6.
   Google Scholar
• Thom M, Zhou J, Martinian L, et al. Quantitative post-mortem study of the hippocampus in chronic epilepsy: seizures do not inevitably cause neuronal loss. Brain. 2005;128:1344–1357.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vespa PM, Miller C, McArthur D, et al. Nonconvulsive electrographic seizures after traumatic brain injury result in a delayed, prolonged increase in intracranial pressure and metabolic crisis. Crit Care Med. 2007;35:2830–2836.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bae EK, Jung KH, Chu K, et al. Neuropathologic and clinical features of human medial temporal lobe epilepsy. J Clin Neurol. 2010;6:73–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lombroso CT. Can early postnatal head injury induce cortical dysplasia. Epilepsia. 2000;41:245–253.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Temkin NR, Dikmen SS, Wilensky AJ, et al. A randomized, double-blind study of phenytoin for the prevention of post-traumatic seizures. New England J Med. 1990;323:497–502.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tilford JM, Simpson PM, Yeh TS, et al. Variation in therapy and outcome for pediatric head trauma patients. Crit Care Med. 2001;29:1056–1061.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearl PL, McCarter R, McGavin CL, et al. Results of phase II levetiracetam trial following acute head injury in children at risk for posttraumatic epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2013;54:e135–e137.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• İşgüder R, Güzel O, Ağın H, et al. Efficacy and safety of IV levetiracetam in children with acute repetitive seizures. Pediatr Neurol. 2014;51:688–695.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bansal S, Blalock D, Kebede T, et al. Levetiracetam versus (fos)phenytoin for seizure prophylaxis in pediatric patients with intracranial hemorrhage. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2014;13:209–215.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson K, Pohlmann-Eden B, Campbell LA, et al. Pharmacological treatments for preventing epilepsy following traumatic head injury. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;10:8.
   Google Scholar
• Gilad R, Boaz M, Sadeh M, et al. Seizures after very mild head or spine trauma. J Neurotrauma. 2013;30:469–472.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Budnitz DS, Pollock DA, Weidenbach KN, et al. National surveillance of emergency department visits for outpatient adverse drug events. Jama. 2006;296:1858–1866.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson M, Egunsola O, Cherrill J, et al. A prospective study of adverse drug reactions to antiepileptic drugs in children. BMJ Open. 2015;5:e008298.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ritter F, Glauser TA, Elterman RD, et al. Study Group, Effectiveness, tolerability, and safety of topiramate in children with partial-onset seizures. Epilepsia. 2000;41(Suppl 1):S82–S85.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaccara G, Giovannelli F, Franco V, et al. Adverse events, placebo and nocebo effects in placebo-treated paediatric patients with refractory focal epilepsies. Analysis of double-blind studies. Epilepsy Res. 2014;108:1685–1693.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perucca P, Gilliam FG. Adverse effects of antiepileptic drugs. Lancet Neurol. 2012;11:792–802.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhullar IS, Johnson D, Paul JP, et al., More harm than good: antiseizure prophylaxis after traumatic brain injury does not decrease seizure rates but may inhibit functional recovery. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2014;76:54–60. discussion 60-61.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mikati MA, Holmes GL, Chronopoulos A, et al. Phenobarbital modifies seizure-related brain injury in the developing brain. Ann Neurol. 1994;36:425–433.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loscher W, Brandt C. Prevention or modification of epileptogenesis after brain insults: experimental approaches and translational research. Pharmacol Rev. 2010;62:668–700.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein P, Herr D, Pearl PL, et al. Results of phase II pharmacokinetic study of levetiracetam for prevention of post-traumatic epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2012;24:457–461.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ikonomidou C. Matrix metalloproteinases and epileptogenesis. Mol Cell Pediatr. 2014;1:6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Varvel NH, Jiang J, Dingledine R. Candidate drug targets for prevention or modification of epilepsy. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 2015;55:229–247.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engel J Jr, Pitkänen A, Loeb JA, et al. Epilepsy biomarkers. Epilepsia. 2013;54(Suppl 4):61–69.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitkänen A, Bolkvadze T, Immonen R. Anti-epileptogenesis in rodent post-traumatic epilepsy models. Neurosci Lett. 2011;497:163–171.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eslami M, Sayyah M, Soleimani M, et al. Lipopolysaccharide preconditioning prevents acceleration of kindling epileptogenesis induced by traumatic brain injury. J Neuroimmunol. 2015;289:143–151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OCEBM Levels of Evidence Working Group. The Oxford 2011 levels of evidence. Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine. http://www.cebm.net/index.aspx?o=5653
   Google Scholar