An Update on Myoclonus Management

References

• Fahn S, Jankovic J, Hallett M. Principles and practice of movement disorders. 2nd ed. Edinburgh; New York: Elsevier/Saunders; 2011.
   Google Scholar
• Marsden C, Hallett M, Fahn S. The nosology and pathophysiology of myoclonus. In: Marsden C, Fahn S, editors. Movement disorders. London: Butterworths; 1982. p. 196–248.
   Google Scholar
• Nygaard TG, Raymond D, Chen C, et al. Localization of a gene for myoclonus-dystonia to chromosome 7q21-q31. Ann Neurol. 1999 Nov;46(5):794–798. PubMed PMID: 10554001.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shibasaki H, Hallett M. Electrophysiological studies of myoclonus. Muscle Nerve. 2005 Feb;31(2):157–174. PubMed PMID: 15547927.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avanzini G, Shibasaki H, Rubboli G, et al. Neurophysiology of myoclonus and progressive myoclonus epilepsies. Epileptic Disord. 2016 Sep 1;18(S2):11–27. PubMed PMID: 27702708.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown P, Farmer SF, Halliday DM, et al. Coherent cortical and muscle discharge in cortical myoclonus. Brain. 1999 Mar;122(Pt 3):461–472. PubMed PMID: 10094255.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Apartis E, Vercueil L. To jerk or not to jerk: a clinical pathophysiology of myoclonus. Rev Neurol (Paris). 2016 Aug - Sep;172(8–9):465–476. PubMed PMID: 27568397.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deuschl G, Toro C, Valls-Sole J, et al. Symptomatic and essential palatal tremor. 1. Clinical, physiological and MRI analysis. Brain. 1994 Aug;117(Pt 4):775–788. PubMed PMID: 7922465.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brown P, Thompson PD, Rothwell JC, et al. Axial myoclonus of propriospinal origin. Brain. 1991 Feb;114(Pt 1A):197–214. PubMed PMID: 1998882.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Roze E, Bounolleau P, Ducreux D, et al. Propriospinal myoclonus revisited: clinical, neurophysiologic, and neuroradiologic findings. Neurology. 2009 Apr 14;72(15):1301–1309. PubMed PMID: 19365051.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roze E, Apartis E, Vidailhet M, et al. Propriospinal myoclonus: utility of magnetic resonance diffusion tensor imaging and fiber tracking. Mov Disord. 2007 Jul 30;22(10):1506–1509. PubMed PMID: 17523193.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Salm SM, Erro R, Cordivari C, et al. Propriospinal myoclonus: clinical reappraisal and review of literature. Neurology. 2014 Nov 11;83(20):1862–1870. PubMed PMID: 25305154; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC4240434.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obeso JA. Therapy of myoclonus. Clin Neurosci. 1995;3(4):253–257. PubMed PMID: 8891399.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fahn S. Posthypoxic action myoclonus: review of the literature and report of two new cases with response to valproate and estrogen. Adv Neurol. 1979;26: 49–84. PubMed PMID: 229719.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Obeso JA, Artieda J, Rothwell JC, et al. The treatment of severe action myoclonus. Brain. 1989 Jun;112(Pt 3):765–777. PubMed PMID: 2499399.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown P, Steiger MJ, Thompson PD, et al. Effectiveness of piracetam in cortical myoclonus. Mov Disord. 1993;8(1):63–68. PubMed PMID: 8419809.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obeso JA, Artieda J, Luquin MR, et al. Antimyoclonic action of piracetam. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1986;9(1):58–64. PubMed PMID: 3103912.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obeso JA, Artieda J, Quinn N, et al. Piracetam in the treatment of different types of myoclonus. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1988 Dec;11(6):529–536. PubMed PMID: 3233590.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Genton P, Guerrini R, Remy C. Piracetam in the treatment of cortical myoclonus. Pharmacopsychiatry. 1999 Mar;32(Suppl 1):49–53. PubMed PMID: 10338109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fedi M, Reutens D, Dubeau F, et al. Long-term efficacy and safety of piracetam in the treatment of progressive myoclonus epilepsy. Arch Neurol. 2001 May;58(5):781–786. PubMed PMID: 11346373.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Koskiniemi M, Van Vleymen B, Hakamies L, et al. Piracetam relieves symptoms in progressive myoclonus epilepsy: a multicentre, randomised, double blind, crossover study comparing the efficacy and safety of three dosages of oral piracetam with placebo. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1998 Mar;64(3):344–348. PubMed PMID: 9527146; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC2169975.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferlazzo E, Trenite DK, Haan GJ, et al. Update on pharmacological treatment of progressive myoclonus epilepsies. Curr Pharm Des. 2017;23(37):5662–5666. PubMed PMID: 28799509; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC5954238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ikeda A, Shibasaki H, Tashiro K, et al. Clinical trial of piracetam in patients with myoclonus: nationwide multiinstitution study in Japan. The myoclonus/piracetam study group. Mov Disord. 1996 Nov;11(6):691–700. PubMed PMID: 8914096.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michelucci R, Pasini E, Riguzzi P, et al. Myoclonus and seizures in progressive myoclonus epilepsies: pharmacology and therapeutic trials. Epileptic Disord. 2016 Sep 1;18(S2):145–153. PubMed PMID: 27629998.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Frucht SJ, Louis ED, Chuang C, et al. A pilot tolerability and efficacy study of levetiracetam in patients with chronic myoclonus. Neurology. 2001 Sep 25;57(6):1112–1114. PubMed PMID: 11571347.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Genton P, Gelisse P. Antimyoclonic effect of levetiracetam. Epileptic Disord. 2000 Dec;2(4):209–212. PubMed PMID: 11174151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magaudda A, Gelisse P, Genton P. Antimyoclonic effect of levetiracetam in 13 patients with Unverricht-Lundborg disease: clinical observations. Epilepsia. 2004 Jun;45(6):678–681. PubMed PMID: 15144434.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cho JW, Lee JH. Suppression of myoclonus in corticobasal degeneration by levetiracetam. J Mov Disord. 2014 Apr;7(1):28–30. PubMed PMID: 24926409; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC4051726.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kovacs T, Farsang M, Vitaszil E, et al. Levetiracetam reduces myoclonus in corticobasal degeneration: report of two cases. J Neural Transm (Vienna). 2009 Dec;116(12):1631–1634. PubMed PMID: 19756367.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalviainen R, Genton P, Andermann E, et al. Brivaracetam in Unverricht-Lundborg disease (EPM1): results from two randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies. Epilepsia. 2016 Feb;57(2):210–221. PubMed PMID: 26666500.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tai KK, Truong DD. Brivaracetam is superior to levetiracetam in a rat model of post-hypoxic myoclonus. PubMed PMID: 17690949 J Neural Transm (Vienna). 2007;11412:1547–1551.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberb MA, Dorman JD. Intention myoclonus: successful treatment with clonazepam. Neurology. 1976 Jan;26(1):24–26. PubMed PMID: 942766.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demir CF, Ozdemir HH, Mungen B. Efficacy of topiramate as add-on therapy in two different types of progressive myoclonic epilepsy. PubMed PMID: 23909054 Acta Medica (Hradec Kralove). 2013;561:36–38.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kyllerman M, Ben-Menachem E. Zonisamide for progressive myoclonus epilepsy: long-term observations in seven patients. Epilepsy Res. 1998 Jan;29(2):109–114. PubMed PMID: 9477142.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshimura I, Kaneko S, Yoshimura N, et al. Long-term observations of two siblings with Lafora disease treated with zonisamide. Epilepsy Res. 2001 Sep;46(3):283–287. PubMed PMID: 11518630.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Italiano D, Pezzella M, Coppola A, et al. A pilot open-label trial of zonisamide in Unverricht-Lundborg disease. Mov Disord. 2011 Feb 1;26(2):341–343. PubMed PMID: 20939070.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weintraub D, Buchsbaum R, Resor SR Jr. et al. Psychiatric and behavioral side effects of the newer antiepileptic drugs in adults with epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2007 Feb;10(1):105–110. PubMed PMID: 17079191.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinn NP. Essential myoclonus and myoclonic dystonia. Mov Disord. 1996 Mar;11(2):119–124. PubMed PMID: 8684380.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frucht SJ, Houghton WC, Bordelon Y, et al. A single-blind, open-label trial of sodium oxybate for myoclonus and essential tremor. Neurology. 2005 Dec 27;65(12):1967–1969. PubMed PMID: 16382538.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakheit AM, Behan PO. Palatal myoclonus successfully treated with clonazepam. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1990 Sep;53(9):806. PubMed PMID: 2246666; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC1014267.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jabbari B, Rosenberg M, Scherokman B, et al. Effectiveness of trihexyphenidyl against pendular nystagmus and palatal myoclonus: evidence of cholinergic dysfunction. Mov Disord. 1987;2(2):93–98. PubMed PMID: 3504267.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Scott BL, Evans RW, Jankovic J. Treatment of palatal myoclonus with sumatriptan. Mov Disord. 1996 Nov;11(6):748–751. PubMed PMID: 8914109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krause E, Heinen F, Gurkov R. Difference in outcome of botulinum toxin treatment of essential palatal tremor in children and adults. Am J Otolaryngol. 2010 Mar-Apr;31(2):91–95. PubMed PMID: 20015723.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krause E, Leunig A, Klopstock T, et al. Treatment of essential palatal myoclonus in a 10-year-old girl with botulinum neurotoxin. Otol Neurotol. 2006 Aug;27(5):672–675. PubMed PMID: 16868515.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penney SE, Bruce IA, Saeed SR. Botulinum toxin is effective and safe for palatal tremor: a report of five cases and a review of the literature. J Neurol. 2006 Jul;253(7):857–860. PubMed PMID: 16845571.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiodo AE, Saval A. Intrathecal baclofen for the treatment of spinal myoclonus: a case series. J Spinal Cord Med. 2012 Jan;35(1):64–67. PubMed PMID: 22330193; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC3240919.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jankovic J, Pardo R. Segmental myoclonus. Clinical and pharmacologic study. Arch Neurol. 1986 Oct;43(10):1025–1031. PubMed PMID: 3753263.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Keswani SC, Kossoff EH, Krauss GL, et al. Amelioration of spinal myoclonus with levetiracetam. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2002 Oct;73(4):457–458. PubMed PMID: 12235322; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC1738068.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siniscalchi A, Mancuso F, Russo E, et al. Spinal myoclonus responsive to topiramate. Mov Disord. 2004 Nov;19(11):1380–1381. PubMed PMID: 15389982.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshimura DM, Aminoff MJ, Tami TA, et al. Treatment of hemifacial spasm with botulinum toxin. Muscle Nerve. 1992 Sep;15(9):1045–1049. PubMed PMID: 1518513.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander GE, Moses H. 3rd. Carbamazepine for hemifacial spasm. Neurology. 1982 Mar;32(3):286–287. PubMed PMID: 7199640.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Daniele O, Caravaglios G, Marchini C, et al. Gabapentin in the treatment of hemifacial spasm. Acta Neurol Scand. 2001 Aug;104(2):110–112. PubMed PMID: 11493229.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu X, Griffin IC, Parkin SG, et al. Involvement of the medial pallidum in focal myoclonic dystonia: a clinical and neurophysiological case study. Mov Disord. 2002 Mar;17(2):346–353. PubMed PMID: 11921122.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trottenberg T, Meissner W, Kabus C, et al. Neurostimulation of the ventral intermediate thalamic nucleus in inherited myoclonus-dystonia syndrome. Mov Disord. 2001 Jul;16(4):769–771. PubMed PMID: 11481711.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azoulay-Zyss J, Roze E, Welter ML, et al. Bilateral deep brain stimulation of the pallidum for myoclonus-dystonia due to epsilon-sarcoglycan mutations: a pilot study. Arch Neurol. 2011 Jan;68(1):94–98. PubMed PMID: 21220679.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Magarinos-Ascone CM, Regidor I, Martinez-Castrillo JC, et al. Pallidal stimulation relieves myoclonus-dystonia syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2005 Jul;76(7):989–991. PubMed PMID: 15965208; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC1739713.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernandez-Pajarin G, Sesar A, Relova JL, et al. Bilateral pallidal deep brain stimulation in myoclonus-dystonia: our experience in three cases and their follow-up. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2016 Oct;158(10):2023–2028. 10.1007/s00701-016-2904-3. PubMed PMID: 27531176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rocha H, Linhares P, Chamadoira C, et al. Early deep brain stimulation in patients with myoclonus-dystonia syndrome. J Clin Neurosci. 2016 May;27:17–21. PubMed PMID: 26810467.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuncel AM, Turner DA, Ozelius LJ, et al. Myoclonus and tremor response to thalamic deep brain stimulation parameters in a patient with inherited myoclonus-dystonia syndrome. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2009 Apr;111(3):303–306. PubMed PMID: 19081669; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC3101371.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oropilla JQ, Diesta CC, Itthimathin P, et al. Both thalamic and pallidal deep brain stimulation for myoclonic dystonia. J Neurosurg. 2010 Jun;112(6):1267–1270. PubMed PMID: 19929196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roze E, Vidailhet M, Hubsch C, et al. Pallidal stimulation for myoclonus-dystonia: ten years’ outcome in two patients. Mov Disord. 2015 May;30(6):871–872. PubMed PMID: 25787304.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosutzka Z, Tisch S, Bonnet C, et al. Long-term GPi-DBS improves motor features in myoclonus-dystonia and enhances social adjustment. Mov Disord. 2019 Jan;34(1):87–94. PubMed PMID: 30302819.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang YQ, Wang JW, Wang YP, et al. Thalamus stimulation for myoclonus dystonia syndrome: five cases and long-term follow-up. World Neurosurg. 2019 Feb;122:e933–e939. PubMed PMID: 30419400.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sidiropoulos C, Mestre T, Hutchison W, et al. Bilateral pallidal stimulation for sargoglycan epsilon negative myoclonus. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2014 Aug;20(8):915–918. PubMed PMID: 24812007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hainque E, Vidailhet M, Cozic N, et al. A randomized, controlled, double-blind, crossover trial of zonisamide in myoclonus-dystonia. Neurology. 2016 May 3;86(18):1729–1735. PubMed PMID: 27053715.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldsmith D, Minassian BA. Efficacy and tolerability of perampanel in ten patients with Lafora disease. Epilepsy Behav. 2016 Sep;62:132–135. PubMed PMID: 27459034; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC5691360.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crespel A, Gelisse P, Tang NP, et al. Perampanel in 12 patients with Unverricht-Lundborg disease. Epilepsia. 2017 Apr;58(4):543–547. PubMed PMID: 28166365.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bianchini S, Bellantoni G, Albergati A, et al. Postsurgical cortical myoclonus responsive to perampanel. Neurol Clin Pract. 2018 Apr;8(2):159–161. PubMed PMID: 29708211; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC5914746.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gil-Lopez FJ, Montoya J, Falip M, et al. Retrospective study of perampanel efficacy and tolerability in myoclonic seizures. Acta Neurol Scand. 2018 Aug;138(2):122–129. PubMed PMID: 29573400.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asahi T, Kashiwazaki D, Dougu N, et al. Alleviation of myoclonus after bilateral pallidal deep brain stimulation for Lance-Adams syndrome. J Neurol. 2015 Jun;262(6):1581–1583. PubMed PMID: 25929661.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kobayashi K, Katayama Y, Otaka T, et al. Thalamic deep brain stimulation for the treatment of action myoclonus caused by perinatal anoxia. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg. 2010;88(4):259–263. PubMed PMID: 20530980.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramdhani RA, Frucht SJ, Kopell BH. Improvement of post-hypoxic myoclonus with bilateral pallidal deep brain stimulation: a case report and review of the literature. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov (N Y). 2017;7:461. PubMed PMID: 28616357; PubMed Central PMCID: PMCPMC5468509.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamada K, Sakurama T, Soyama N, et al. Gpi pallidal stimulation for Lance-Adams syndrome. Neurology. 2011 Apr 5;76(14):1270–1272. PubMed PMID: 21464432.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wille C, Steinhoff BJ, Altenmuller DM, et al. Chronic high-frequency deep-brain stimulation in progressive myoclonic epilepsy in adulthood–report of five cases. Epilepsia. 2011 Mar;52(3):489–496. PubMed PMID: 21219312.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rossi Sebastiano D, Magaudda A, Quartarone A, et al. Effect of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on action myoclonus: a pilot study in patients with EPM1. Epilepsy Behav. 2018 Mar;80:33–36. PubMed PMID: 29396360.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar