399
Views
5
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

A systematic review of longitudinal studies investigating the impact of cannabis use in patients with psychotic disorders

, , , , &
Pages 779-791 | Received 16 Mar 2021, Accepted 10 Jun 2021, Published online: 21 Jun 2021

References

  • Addington DE, Patten SB, McKenzie E, et al. Relationship between relapse and hospitalization in first-episode psychosis. Psychiatr Serv. 2013;64(8):796–799.
  • Wiersma D, Nienhuis FJ, Slooff CJ, et al. Natural course of schizophrenic disorders: a 15-year followup of a Dutch incidence cohort. Schizophr Bull. 1998;24(1):75–85.
  • Robinson D, Woerner MG, Alvir JMJ, et al. Predictors of relapse following response from a first episode of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56(3):241–247.
  • Porcelli S, Bianchini O, De Girolamo G, et al. Clinical factors related to schizophrenia relapse. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 2016;20(2):54–69.
  • Csernansky JG, Mahmoud R, Brenner R. A comparison of risperidone and haloperidol for the prevention of relapse in patients with schizophrenia. N Engl J Med. 2002;346(1):16–22.
  • Alvarez-Jimenez M, Priede A, Hetrick SE, et al. Risk factors for relapse following treatment for first episode psychosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Schizophr Res. 2012;139(1–3):116–128. Available from.
  • Cloutier M, Aigbogun MS, Guerin A, et al. The economic burden of schizophrenia in the United States in 2013. J Clin Psychiatry. 2016;77(6):764–771.
  • Rabin RA, George TP. Cannabis and psychosis: understanding the smoke signals. Available from Lancet Psychiatry. 2016;310:909–910.
  • Morken G, Widen JH, Grawe RW. Non-adherence to antipsychotic medication, relapse and rehospitalisation in recent-onset schizophrenia. BMC Psychiatry. 2008;8(1):32. Available from:https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-8-32.
  • Abdel-Baki A, Ouellet-Plamondon C, Salvat É, et al. Symptomatic and functional outcomes of substance use disorder persistence 2 years after admission to a first-episode psychosis program. Psychiatry Res. 2017;247:113–119. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2016.11.007.
  • Lambert M, Conus P, Lubman DI, et al. The impact of substance use disorders on clinical outcome in 643 patients with first-episode psychosis. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2005;112(2):141–148.
  • Swofford CD, Kasckow JW, Scheller-Gilkey G, et al. Substance use: a powerful predictor of relapse in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res. 1996;20(1–2):145–151. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0920996495000682.
  • Abram KM, Teplin LA. Co-occurring disorders among mentally ill jail detainees: implications for public policy. Am Psychol. 1991;46(10):1036.
  • Smith J, Hucker S. Schizophrenia and substance abuse. Br J Psychiatry. 1994;165(1):13.
  • Caton CLM. The new chronic patient and the system of community care. Psychiatr Serv. 1981;32(7):475–478.
  • Archie S, Rush BR, Akhtar-Danesh N, et al. Substance use and abuse in first-episode psychosis: prevalence before and after early intervention. Schizophr Bull. 2007;33(6):1354–1363. Available from.
  • Van Mastrigt S, Addington J, Addington D. Substance misuse at presentation to an early psychosis program. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2004;39(1):69–72.
  • Koskinen J, Löhönen J, Koponen H, et al. Rate of cannabis use disorders in clinical samples of patients with schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Schizophr Bull. 2010;36(6):1115–1130.
  • Myles H, Myles N, Large M. Cannabis use in first episode psychosis: meta-analysis of prevalence, and the time course of initiation and continued use. Aust New Zeal J Psychiatry. 2016;50(3):208–219.
  • Hasan A, Von Keller R, Friemel CM, et al. Cannabis use and psychosis: a review of reviews. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2019;270(4):403–412. Available from.
  • Manrique-Garcia E, Zammit S, Dalman C, et al. Prognosis of schizophrenia in persons with and without a history of cannabis use. Psychol Med. 2014;44(12):2513–2521.
  • Batalla A, Garcia-Rizo C, Castellví P, et al. Screening for substance use disorders in first-episode psychosis: implications for readmission. Schizophr Res. 2013;146(1–3):125–131. Available from.
  • San L, Bernardo M, Gómez A, et al. Factors associated with relapse in patients with schizophrenia. Int J Psychiatry Clin Pract. 2013;17(1):2–9.
  • Lecomte T, Potvin S, Samson C, et al. Predicting and preventing symptom onset and relapse in schizophrenia—A meta review of current empirical evidence. J Abnorm Psychol. 2019;128(8):840.
  • Hadden KL, LeDrew K, Hogan K, et al. Impact of comorbid cannabis use on outcome in first episode psychosis. Early Interv Psychiatry. 2018;64(5):796–799.
  • Rentero D, Arias F, Sánchez-Romero S, et al. Cannabis-induced psychosis: clinical characteristics and its differentiation from schizophrenia with and without cannabis use. Adicciones. 2016;29(2):105–112.
  • Hoffmann H. Age and other factors relevant to the rehospitalization of schizophrenic outpatients. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1994;89(3):205–210.
  • Gupta P, Mullin K, Nielssen O, et al. Do former substance users with psychosis differ in their symptoms or function from non-substance users? A systematic meta-analysis. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2013;56(6):524–537.
  • Van Der Meer FJ, Velthorst E, Risk G, et al. Course of cannabis use and clinical outcome in patients with non-affective psychosis: a 3-year follow-up study. Psychol Med. 2015;45(9):1977–1988.
  • Maremmani I, Lazzeri A, Pacini M, et al. Diagnostic and symptomatological features in chronic psychotic patients according to cannabis use status. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2004;20(2):54–69.
  • Schoeler T, Monk A, Sami MB, et al. Continued versus discontinued cannabis use in patients with psychosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry . 2016;3(3):215–225. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(15)00363-6.
  • Schoeler T, Petros N, Di Forti M, et al. Poor medication adherence and risk of relapse associated with continued cannabis use in patients with first-episode psychosis: a prospective analysis. Lancet Psychiatry . 2017;4(8):627–633. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30233-X.
  • Slaughter ME, Farris C, Singer MI, et al. Using claims data to examine hospital readmission risk in patients with schizophrenia and comorbid marijuana use disorders. J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2016;78(2):278–286.
  • Hui CLM, Tang JYM, Leung C-M, et al. A 3-year retrospective cohort study of predictors of relapse in first-episode psychosis in Hong Kong. Aust New Zeal J Psychiatry. 2013;47(8):746–753.
  • Jones HJ, Gage SH, Heron J, et al. Association of combined patterns of tobacco and cannabis use in adolescence with psychotic experiences. JAMA Psychiatry. 2018;75(3):240–246.
  • Di Forti M, Quattrone D, Freeman TP, et al. The contribution of cannabis use to variation in the incidence of psychotic disorder across Europe (EU-GEI): a multicentre case-control study. Lancet Psychiatry. 2019;6(5):427–436.
  • Schnell T, Koethe D, Krasnianski A, et al. Ziprasidone versus clozapine in the treatment of dually diagnosed (DD) patients with schizophrenia and cannabis use disorders: a randomized study. Am J Addict. 2014;23(3):308–312.
  • Horsfall J, Cleary M, Hunt GE. et al. Psychosocial treatments for people with co-occurring severe mental illnesses and substance use disorders (dual diagnosis): a review of empirical evidence. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2009;17 24–34..
  • Gonçalves-Pinho M, Bragança M, Freitas A. Psychotic disorders hospitalizations associated with cannabis abuse or dependence: a nationwide big data analysis. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 2020;29:2020–2021.
  • Gates PJ, Sabioni P, Copeland J, et al. Psychosocial interventions for cannabis use disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016. Available from: https://doi.org//10.1002/14651858.CD005336.pub4.
  • Negrete JC, Knapp WP, Douglas DE, et al. Cannabis affects the severity of schizophrenic symptoms: results of a clinical survey. Psychol Med. 1986;16(3):515–520.
  • González-Pinto A, Alberich S, Barbeito S, et al. Cannabis and first-episode psychosis: different long-term outcomes depending on continued or discontinued use. Schizophr Bull. 2011;37(3):631–639. .
  • Liberati A, Altman DG, Tetzlaff J, et al. The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate healthcare interventions: explanation and elaboration. BMJ. 2009;339(jul21 1):b2700. Available from: http://www.bmj.com/content/339/bmj.b2700.abstract.
  • Zammit S, Moore THM, Lingford-Hughes A, et al. Effects of cannabis use on outcomes of psychotic disorders: systematic review. Br J Psychiatry. 2008;193(5):357–363.
  • Large M, Mullin K, Gupta P, et al. Systematic meta-analysis of outcomes associated with psychosis and co-morbid substance use. Aust New Zeal J Psychiatry. 2014;48(5):418–432.
  • American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Pub; 2013.
  • World Health Organization. The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. Wkly Epidemiol Rec Relev épidémiologique Hebd. 1992 ;67:227.
  • Olivares JM, Sermon J, Hemels M. et al. Definitions and drivers of relapse in patients with schizophrenia: a systematic literature review. Ann Gen Psychiatry. 2013;12 32. Available from:https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/241487071
  • Borenstein M, Hedges L, Higgins J, et al. Comprehensive Meta-Analysis. Englewood: Biostat. 2013.
  • Beards S, Gayer-Anderson C, Borges S, et al. Life events and psychosis: a review and meta-analysis. Schizophr Bull . 2013;39(4):740–747. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbt065.
  • American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th ed. American Psychiatric Pub; 2013.
  • American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th. Text Revision. Washington, DC. 2000.
  • World Health Organization. The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: clinical descriptions and diagnostic guideline. 6th ed. Geneva; 1992.
  • World Health Organization. Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) researcher’s manual (Version 1.1,). Arlington, VA, US: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
  • Schoeler T, Petros N, Di FM, et al. Association between continued cannabis use and risk of relapse in first-episode psychosis a quasi-experimental investigation within an observational study. JAMA Psychiatry. 2016;73(11):1173–1179.
  • Schoeler T, Petros N, Di Forti M, et al. Effects of continuation, frequency, and type of cannabis use on relapse in the first 2 years after onset of psychosis: an observational study. Lancet Psychiatry. 2016;3(10):947–953. Available from.
  • Marino L, Scodes J, Richkin T, et al. Persistent cannabis use among young adults with early psychosis receiving coordinated specialty care in the United States. Schizophr Res. 2020;222:274–282. Available from.
  • Bhattacharyya S, Schoeler T, Patel R, et al. Individualized prediction of 2-year risk of relapse as indexed by psychiatric hospitalization following psychosis onset: model development in two first episode samples. Schizophr Res. 2020. Available from. DOI:10.1016/j.schres.2020.09.016.
  • Ouellet-Plamondon C, Abdel-Baki A, Salvat E, et al. Specific impact of stimulant, alcohol and cannabis use disorders on first-episode psychosis: 2-year functional and symptomatic outcomes. Psychol Med. 2017;44(14):2513–2521.
  • Bergé D, Mané A, Salgado P, et al. Predictors of relapse and functioning in first-episode psychosis: a two-year follow-up study. Psychiatr Serv. 2016;67(2):227–233.
  • Emsley R, Asmal L, Rubio JM, et al. Predictors of psychosis breakthrough during 24 months of long-acting antipsychotic maintenance treatment in first episode schizophrenia. Schizophr Res. 2019. Available from. 10.1016/j.schres.2019.11.025.
  • Setién-Suero E, Neergaard K, Ortiz-garcía De La Foz V, et al. Stopping cannabis use benefits outcome in psychosis: findings from 10-year follow-up study in the PAFIP-cohort. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2019;140(4):349–359.
  • Grech A, Van Os J, Jones P, et al. Cannabis use and outcome of recent onset psychosis. 2005;20:349–353.Eur Psychiatry J of the Assoc ofEuropean Psychiatr
  • Hides L, Dawe S, Kavanagh DJ, et al. Psychotic symptom and cannabis relapse in recent-onset psychosis. Br J Psychiatry. 2006;189(2):137–143.
  • Addington J, Addington D. Patterns, predictors and impact of substance use in early psychosis: a longitudinal study. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2007;115(4):304–309.
  • Foti DJ, Kotov R, Guey LT, et al. Cannabis use and the course of schizophrenia: 10-year follow-up after first hospitalization. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167(8):987–993.
  • Schimmelmann BG, Conus P, Cotton S, et al. Prevalence and impact of cannabis use disorders in adolescents with early onset first episode psychosis. Eur Psychiatry. 2012;27(6):463–469. Available from.
  • Clausen L, Hjorthoj CR, Thorup A, et al. Change in cannabis use, clinical symptoms and social functioning among patients with first-episode psychosis: a 5-year follow-up study of patients in the OPUS trial. Psychol Med. 2014;44(1):117–126.
  • Stone JM, Fisher HL, Major B, et al. Cannabis use and first-episode psychosis: relationship with manic and psychotic symptoms, and with age at presentation. Psychol Med. 2014;44(3):499–506.
  • Degenhardt L, Tennant C, Gilmour S, et al. The temporal dynamics of relationships between cannabis, psychosis and depression among young adults with psychotic disorders: findings from a 10-month prospective study. Psychol Med. 2007;37(7):927–934.
  • Seddon JL, Birchwood M, Copello A, et al. Cannabis use is associated with increased psychotic symptoms and poorer psychosocial functioning in first-episode psychosis: a report from the UK National EDEN study. Schizophr Bull. 2016;42(3):619–625.
  • Colizzi M, Carra E, Fraietta S, et al. Substance use, medication adherence and outcome one year following a first episode of psychosis. Schizophr Res. 2016;170(2–3):311–317. Available from.
  • Fond G, Bulzacka E, Boucekine M, et al. Machine learning for predicting psychotic relapse at 2 years in schizophrenia in the national FACE-SZ cohort. Prog Neuro Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2019;92:8–18.
  • Sorbara F, Liraud F, Assens F, et al. Substance use and the course of early psychosis: a 2-year follow-up of first-admitted subjects. Eur Psychiatry. 2003;18(3):133–136.
  • Van Dijk D, Koeter MWJ, Hijman R, et al. Effect of cannabis use on the course of schizophrenia in male patients: a prospective cohort study. Schizophr Res. 2012;137(1–3):50–57. Available from.
  • Linszen D, Dingemans PM, Lenior ME. Cannabis abuse and the course of recent-onset schizophrenic disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry. 1994;51(4):273–279.
  • Baeza I, Graell M, Moreno D, et al. Cannabis use in children and adolescents with first episode psychosis: influence on psychopathology and short-term outcome (CAFEPS study). Schizophr Res. 2009;113(2–3):129–137.
  • Barrowclough C, Emsley R, Eisner E, et al. Does change in cannabis use in established psychosis affect clinical outcome? Schizophr Bull. 2013;39(2):339–348.
  • Faridi K, Joober R, Malla A. Medication adherence mediates the impact of sustained cannabis use on symptom levels in first-episode psychosis. Available from Schizophr Res. 2012;1411:78–82.
  • Martinez-Arevalo MJ, Calcedo-Ordonez A, Varo-Prieto JR. Cannabis consumption as a prognostic factor in schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry. 1994;164(5):679–681.
  • Rømer Thomsen K, Thylstrup B, Pedersen MM, et al. Drug-related predictors of readmission for schizophrenia among patients admitted to treatment for drug use disorders. Schizophr Res. 2018;195:495–500. Available from.
  • Barrowclough C, Gregg L, Lobban F, et al. The impact of cannabis use on clinical outcomes in recent onset psychosis. Schizophr Bull. 2015;41(2):382–390.
  • Jorgensen KB, Nordentoft M, Hjorthoj C. Association between alcohol and substance use disorders and psychiatric service use in patients with severe mental illness: a nationwide Danish register-based cohort study. Psychol Med. 2018;48(15):2592–2600.
  • Sara GE, Burgess PM, Malhi GS, et al. Stimulant and other substance use disorders in schizophrenia: prevalence, correlates and impacts in a population sample. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2014;48(11):1036–1047.
  • Ferreira A, Coentre R. A systematic review of tobacco use in first-episode psychosis. Eur J Psychiatry. 2020;34:132–142. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0213616320300379
  • Manzella F, Maloney SE, Taylor GT. Smoking in schizophrenic patients: a critique of the self-medication hypothesis. World J Psychiatry. 2015;5(1):35–46. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25815253
  • Colizzi M, Weltens N, McGuire P, et al. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol increases striatal glutamate levels in healthy individuals: implications for psychosis. Mol Psychiatry. 2019;25:1–10.
  • Steeds H, Carhart-Harris RL, Stone JM. Drug models of schizophrenia. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol. 2015;89(1):43–58.
  • Davies C, Bhattacharyya S. Cannabidiol as a potential treatment for psychosis. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol. 2019;9:204512531988191.
  • D’Souza DC, Perry E, MacDougall L, et al. The psychotomimetic effects of intravenous delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy individuals: implications for psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2004;29(8):1558–1572.
  • Morrison PD, Zois V, McKeown DA, et al. The acute effects of synthetic intravenous Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol on psychosis, mood and cognitive functioning. Psychol Med. 2009;39(10):1607.
  • Morgan CJA, Freeman TP, Hindocha C, et al. Individual and combined effects of acute delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol on psychotomimetic symptoms and memory function. Transl Psychiatry. 2018;8(1). DOI:10.1038/s41398-018-0191-x Available from:.
  • Schoeler T, Petros N, Di Forti M, et al. Effect of continued cannabis use on medication adherence in the first two years following onset of psychosis. Psychiatry Res. 2017;255:36–41. Available from.
  • Bhattacharyya S, Morrison PD, Fusar-Poli P, et al. Opposite effects of Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol on human brain function and psychopathology. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010;35(3):764–774.
  • Freeman AM, Petrilli K, Lees R, et al. How does cannabidiol (CBD) influence the acute effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in humans? A systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2019;107:696–712. Available from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0149763419305615.
  • Kopelli E, Samara M, Siargkas A, et al. The role of cannabidiol oil in schizophrenia treatment. a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry Res. 2020;291:113246.
  • Cascini F, Tanna CA, Di G. Increasing Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (?-9-THC) content in herbal cannabis over time: systematic review and meta-analysis. Curr. Drug Abuse Rev. 2012;5(1):32–40. Available from: http://www.eurekaselect.com/node/96713/article
  • Colizzi M, Bhattacharyya S. Is there sufficient evidence that cannabis use is a risk factor for psychosis? Risk Factors Psychos, Chapter 16. Cambridge, MA: Academic Press2020. p. 305–331.
  • Asher L, Patel V, De Silva MJ. Community-based psychosocial interventions for people with schizophrenia in low and middle-income countries: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry. 2017;17(1):1–15.
  • Xia J, Merinder LB, Belgamwar MR. Psychoeducation for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011. DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD002831.pub2
  • Pharoah F, Mari JJ, Rathbone J, et al. Family intervention for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010. 10.1002/14651858.CD000088.pub3.
  • Dieterich M, Irving CB, Bergman H, et al. Intensive case management for severe mental illness. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;10.
  • Correll CU, Galling B, Pawar A, et al. Comparison of early intervention services vs treatment as usual for early-phase psychosis: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. JAMA Psychiatry. 2018;92:8–18.
  • Leucht S, Cipriani A, Spineli L, et al. Comparative efficacy and tolerability of 15 antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia: a multiple-treatments meta-analysis. Lancet. 2013;382(9896):951–962.
  • Breier A, Buchanan RW, Kirkpatrick B, et al. Effects of clozapine on positive and negative symptoms in outpatients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 1994;151:20–26.
  • Land R, Siskind D, McArdle P, et al. The impact of clozapine on hospital use: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2017;135(4):296–309. Available from.
  • Arranz B, Garriga M, García-Rizo C, et al. Clozapine use in patients with schizophrenia and a comorbid substance use disorder: a systematic review. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2018;28(2):227–242. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924977X17320321.
  • Machielsen MWJ, Veltman DJ, Van Den Brink W, et al. Comparing the effect of clozapine and risperidone on cue reactivity in male patients with schizophrenia and a cannabis use disorder: a randomized fMRI study. Schizophr Res. 2018;48:1036–1047.
  • Green AI, Zimmet SV, Straus RD, et al. Clozapine for comorbid substance use disorder and schizophrenia: do patients with schizophrenia have a reward-deficiency syndrome that can be ameliorated by clozapine? Harv Rev Psychiatry. 1999;6(6):287–296. Available from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/10673229909017206.
  • Salgueiro M, Segarra R. Long-acting injectable second-generation antipsychotics in first-episode psychosis: a narrative review. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2019;34(2):51–56.
  • Abdel-Baki A, Thibault D, Medrano S, et al. Long-acting antipsychotic medication as first-line treatment of first-episode psychosis with comorbid substance use disorder. Early Interv Psychiatry. 2020;14(1):69–79.
  • Bosanac P, Castle DJ. Why are long-acting injectable antipsychotics still underused? BJPsych Adv. 2015;21(2):98–105.
  • Heres S. Long-acting injectable antipsychotics: an underutilized treatment option. J Clin Psychiatry. 2014;75(11):1263–1265.
  • Tungaraza TE, Ahmed W, Chira C, et al. Prescribing pattern of clozapine and other antipsychotics for patients with first-episode psychosis: a cross-sectional survey of early intervention teams. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol. 2017;8(3):103–111.
  • Bogers JPAM, Schulte PFJ, Van Dijk D, et al. Clozapine underutilization in the treatment of schizophrenia: how can clozapine prescription rates be improved? J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2016;36(2):109–111.
  • Bachmann S. Epidemiology of suicide and the psychiatric perspective. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018;15(7):1425. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29986446
  • Manchanda R, Chue P, Malla A, et al. Long-acting injectable antipsychotics: evidence of effectiveness and use. Can J Psychiatry. 2013;58(5_suppl):5S–13S.
  • Hanssens L, De Hert M, Wampers M, et al. Pharmacological treatment of ambulatory schizophrenic patients in Belgium. Clin Pract Epidemiol Ment Heal. 2006;2(1):1–11.
  • Patel MX, Bishara D, Jayakumar S, et al. Quality of prescribing for schizophrenia: evidence from a national audit in England and Wales. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2014;24(4):499–509.
  • Dellazizzo L, Potvin S, Athanassiou M. et al., Violence and cannabis use: a focused review of a forgotten aspect in the era of liberalizing cannabis. Front Psychiatry, 2020. Available from. https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.567887. 11.
  • George TP, Hill KP, Vaccarino FJ. Cannabis legalization and psychiatric disorders: caveat “Hemp-tor”. Can J Psychiatry. 2018;63(7):447–450.
  • Hill KP. Recreational cannabis legalisation: details will determine mental health effects. Lancet Psychiatry. 2016;3(9):798–799.
  • Lev-Ran S, Roerecke M, Le Foll B, et al. The association between cannabis use and depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychol Med. 2014;44(4):797.
  • Gobbi G, Atkin T, Zytynski T, et al. Association of cannabis use in adolescence and risk of depression, anxiety, and suicidality in young adulthood: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2019;76(4):426–434. Available from.
  • Dellazizzo L, Potvin S, Beaudoin M, et al. Cannabis use and violence in patients with severe mental illnesses: a meta-analytical investigation. Psychiatry Res. 2019;274:42–48.
  • Coronado-Montoya S, Morissette F, Abdel-Baki A, et al. Preventive interventions targeting cannabis use and related harms in people with psychosis: a systematic review. Early Interv Psychiatry. 2020;1–15.
  • Spindle TR, Bonn-Miller MO, Vandrey R. Changing landscape of cannabis: novel products, formulations, and methods of administration. Curr Opin Psychol. 2019;30:98–102.
  • Fattore L. Synthetic Cannabinoids—further evidence supporting the relationship between cannabinoids and psychosis. Biol Psychiatry. 2016;79(7):539–548.
  • Drug Policy Alliance. From prohibition to progress: a status report on marijuana legalization what we know about marijuana legalization in eight states. 2018. [cited 2021 Jan 5]. Available from: https://www.drugpolicy.org/sites/default/files/dpa_marijuana_legalization_report_v8_0.pdf.%0A2
  • Di Forti M. To legalize or not to legalize cannabis, that is the question! World Psychiatry. 2020;19(2):188–189.
  • Hall W, Lynskey M. Assessing the public health impacts of legalizing recreational cannabis use: the US experience. World Psychiatry. 2020;19(2):179–186.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.