Role of environmental factors in multiple sclerosis

References

• McGinley MP, Goldschmidt CH, Rae-Grant AD. Diagnosis and treatment of multiple sclerosis: a review. JAMA. 2021 Feb 23;325(8):765–779.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• The Multiple Sclerosis International Federation. Atlas of MS. 3rd. Sept 2020. Available from http://www.msif.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Atlas-3rd-Edition-Epidemiology-report-EN-updated-30-9-20.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Simpson S Jr., Wang W, Otahal P, et al. Latitude continues to be significantly associated with the prevalence of multiple sclerosis: an updated meta-analysis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2019 Nov;90(11):1193–1200.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harbo HF, Gold R, Tintore M. Sex and gender issues in multiple sclerosis. Ther Adv Neurol Disord. 2013 Jul;6(4):237–248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson AJ, Baranzini SE, Geurts J, et al. Multiple sclerosis. Lancet. 2018 Apr 21;391(10130):1622–1636.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lublin FD, Reingold SC. Defining the clinical course of multiple sclerosis: results of an international survey. National Multiple Sclerosis Society (USA) Advisory Committee on Clinical Trials of New Agents in Multiple Sclerosis. Neurology. 1996 Apr;46(4):907–911.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lublin FD, Reingold SC, Cohen JA, et al. Defining the clinical course of multiple sclerosis: the 2013 revisions. Neurology. 2014 Jul 15;83(3):278–286.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothman KJ. Causes. Am J Epidemiol. 1976 Dec;104(6):587–592.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Multiple Sclerosis Genetics C. Multiple sclerosis genomic map implicates peripheral immune cells and microglia in susceptibility. Science. 2019 Sep 27;365(6460).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin R, Charlesworth J, van der Mei I, et al. The genetics of multiple sclerosis. Pract Neurol. 2012 Oct;12(5):279–288.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ascherio A, Munger KL. Environmental risk factors for multiple sclerosis. Part I: the role of infection. Ann Neurol. 2007 Apr;61(4):288–299.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leibowitz U, Antonovsky A, Medalie JM, et al. Epidemiological study of multiple sclerosis in Israel. II. Multiple sclerosis and level of sanitation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1966 Feb;29(1):60–68.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurtzke JF. Epidemiologic evidence for multiple sclerosis as an infection. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1993 Oct;6(4):382–427.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marrie RA. Environmental risk factors in multiple sclerosis aetiology. Lancet Neurol. 2004 Dec;3(12):709–718.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lauer K. Environmental risk factors in multiple sclerosis. Expert Rev Neurother. 2010 Mar;10(3):421–440.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fagnani C, Neale MC, Nistico L, et al. Twin studies in multiple sclerosis: a meta-estimation of heritability and environmentality. Mult Scler. 2015 Oct;21(11):1404–1413.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westerlind H, Ramanujam R, Uvehag D, et al. Modest familial risks for multiple sclerosis: a registry-based study of the population of Sweden. Brain. 2014 Mar;137(Pt 3):770–778.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koch-Henriksen N, Thygesen LC, Stenager E, et al. Incidence of MS has increased markedly over six decades in Denmark particularly with late onset and in women. Neurology. 2018 May 29;90(22):e1954–e1963.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magyari M, Sorensen PS. The changing course of multiple sclerosis: rising incidence, change in geographic distribution, disease course, and prognosis. Curr Opin Neurol. 2019 Jun;32(3):320–326.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munk Nielsen N, Corn G, Frisch M, et al. Multiple sclerosis among first- and second-generation immigrants in Denmark: a population-based cohort study. Brain. 2019 Jun 1;142(6):1587–1597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nardin C, Latarche C, Soudant M, et al. Generational changes in multiple sclerosis phenotype in North African immigrants in France: a population-based observational study. PLoS One. 2018;13(3):e0194115.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rotstein DL, Marrie RA, Maxwell C, et al. MS risk in immigrants in the McDonald era: a population-based study in Ontario, Canada. Neurology. 2019 Dec 10;93(24):e2203–e2215.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Gorman C, Lucas R, Taylor B. Environmental risk factors for multiple sclerosis: a review with a focus on molecular mechanisms. Int J Mol Sci. 2012;13(9):11718–11752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Mei IA, Simpson S Jr., Stankovich J, et al. Individual and joint action of environmental factors and risk of MS. Neurol Clin. 2011 May;29(2):233–255.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waubant E, Lucas R, Mowry E, et al. Environmental and genetic risk factors for MS: an integrated review. Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 2019 Sep;6(9):1905–1922.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor BV, Lucas RM, Dear K, et al. Latitudinal variation in incidence and type of first central nervous system demyelinating events. Mult Scler. 2010 Apr;16(4):398–405.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor BV, Pearson JF, Clarke G, et al. MS prevalence in New Zealand, an ethnically and latitudinally diverse country. Mult Scler. 2010 Dec;16(12):1422–1431.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collaborators GBDT. Spatial, temporal, and demographic patterns in prevalence of smoking tobacco use and attributable disease burden in 204 countries and territories, 1990-2019: a systematic analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet. 2021 Jun 19;397(10292):2337-2360.
   Google Scholar
• Arneth B. Multiple sclerosis and smoking. Am J Med. 2020 Jul;133(7):783–788.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marrie R, Horwitz R, Cutter G, et al. High frequency of adverse health behaviors in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2009 Jan;15(1):105–113.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nortvedt MW, Riise T, Maeland JG. Multiple sclerosis and lifestyle factors: the Hordaland health study. Neurol Sci. 2005 Dec;26(5):334–339.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner AP, Kivlahan DR, Kazis LE, et al. Smoking among veterans with multiple sclerosis: prevalence correlates, quit attempts, and unmet need for services. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2007 Nov;88(11):1394–1399.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friend KB, Mernoff ST, Block P, et al. Smoking rates and smoking cessation among individuals with multiple sclerosis. Disabil Rehabil. 2006 Sep 30;28(18):1135–1141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belbasis L, Bellou V, Evangelou E, et al. Environmental risk factors and multiple sclerosis: an umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Lancet Neurol. 2015 Mar;14(3):263–273.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abdollahpour I, Nedjat S, Sahraian MA, et al. Waterpipe smoking associated with multiple sclerosis: a population-based incident case-control study. Mult Scler. 2017 Sep;23(10):1328–1335.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briggs FB. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors alpha7 and alpha9 modifies tobacco smoke risk for multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2021 July 27; 8, 1166-1174
   Google Scholar
• Halawani AT, Zeidan ZA, Kareem AM, et al. Sociodemographic, environmental and lifestyle risk factors for multiple sclerosis development in the Western region of Saudi Arabia. A matched case control study. Saudi Med J. 2018 Aug;39(8):808–814.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedstrom AK, Huang J, Brenner N, et al. Smoking and Epstein-Barr virus infection in multiple sclerosis development. Sci Rep. 2020 Jul 3;10(1):10960.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oturai DB, Bach Sondergaard H, Koch-Henriksen N, et al. Exposure to passive smoking during adolescence is associated with an increased risk of developing multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2021 Feb;27(2):188–197.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poorolajal J, Bahrami M, Karami M, et al. Effect of smoking on multiple sclerosis: a meta-analysis. J Public Health (Oxf). 2017 Jun 1;39(2):312–320.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ren J, Ascencio M, Raimondi T, et al. Association between exposure of Ipratropium and Salmeterol and diagnosis of multiple sclerosis: a matched case-control study. Clin Ther. 2019 Aug;41(8):1477–1485.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Degelman ML, Herman KM. Smoking and multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis using the Bradford Hill criteria for causation. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2017 Oct;17:207–216.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang P, Wang R, Li Z, et al. The risk of smoking on multiple sclerosis: a meta-analysis based on 20,626 cases from case-control and cohort studies. PeerJ. 2016;4:e1797.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Backhaus I, Mannocci A, Lemmens PH, et al. Smoking as a risk factor for developing multiple sclerosis: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Clin Ter. 2016 May-Jun;167(3):82–92.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Handel AE, Williamson AJ, Disanto G, et al. Smoking and multiple sclerosis: an updated meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2011 Jan 13;6(1):e16149.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Gorman C, Broadley SA. Smoking and multiple sclerosis: evidence for latitudinal and temporal variation. J Neurol. 2014 Sep;261(9):1677–1683.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abbasi M, Nabavi SM, Fereshtehnejad SM, et al. Multiple sclerosis and environmental risk factors: a case-control study in Iran. Neurol Sci. 2017 Nov;38(11):1941–1951.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedstrom AK, Olsson T, Alfredsson L. Smoking is a major preventable risk factor for multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2016 Jul;22(8):1021–1026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosso M, Chitnis T. Association between cigarette smoking and multiple sclerosis: a review. JAMA Neurol. 2020 Feb 1;77(2):245–253.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hempel S, Graham GD, Fu N, et al. A systematic review of modifiable risk factors in the progression of multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2017 Apr;23(4):525–533.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van der Vuurst de Vries RM, Mescheriakova JY, Runia TF, et al. Smoking at time of CIS increases the risk of clinically definite multiple sclerosis. J Neurol. 2018 May;265(5):1010–1015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedstrom AK, Olsson T, Alfredsson L. Cotinine as a measure of smoking in observational studies of multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2020 Nov;10:1352458520968803.
   Google Scholar
• Arikanoglu A, Shugaiv E, Tuzun E, et al. Impact of cigarette smoking on conversion from clinically isolated syndrome to clinically definite multiple sclerosis. Int J Neurosci. 2013 Jul;123(7):476–479.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Healy BC, Ali EN, Guttmann CR, et al. Smoking and disease progression in multiple sclerosis. Arch Neurol. 2009 Jul;66(7):858–864.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horakova D, Zivadinov R, Weinstock-Guttman B, et al. Environmental factors associated with disease progression after the first demyelinating event: results from the multi-center SET study. PLoS One. 2013;8(1):e53996.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durhan G, Diker S, Has AC, et al. Assessment of the effect of cigarette smoking on regional brain volumes and lesion load in patients with clinically isolated syndrome. Int J Neurosci. 2016 Sep;126(9):805–811.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kappus N, Weinstock-Guttman B, Hagemeier J, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors are associated with increased lesion burden and brain atrophy in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2016 Feb;87(2):181–187.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kvistad S, Myhr KM, Holmoy T, et al. No association of tobacco use and disease activity in multiple sclerosis. Neurol Neuroimmunol Neuroinflamm. 2016 Aug;3(4):e260.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paz-Ballesteros WC, Monterrubio-Flores EA, De Jesus Flores-rivera J, et al. Cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption and overweight in multiple sclerosis: disability progression. Arch Med Res. 2017 Jan;48(1):113–120.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanasescu R, Constantinescu CS, Tench CR, et al. Smoking cessation and the reduction of disability progression in multiple sclerosis: a cohort study. Nicotine Tob Res. 2018 Apr 2;20(5):589–595.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Javizian O, Metz LM, Deighton S, et al. Smoking does not influence disability accumulation in primary progressive multiple sclerosis. Eur J Neurol. 2017 Apr;24(4):624–630.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xie Y, Tian Z, Han F, et al. Factors associated with relapses in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2020 Jul 2;99(27):e20885.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen ER, Sondergaard HB, Laursen JH, et al. Smoking is associated with increased disease activity during natalizumab treatment in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2019 Aug;25(9):1298–1305.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen ER, Oturai AB, Koch-Henriksen N, et al. Smoking affects the interferon beta treatment response in multiple sclerosis. Neurology. 2018 Feb 13;90(7):e593–e600.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedstrom AK, Ryner M, Fink K, et al. Smoking and risk of treatment-induced neutralizing antibodies to interferon beta-1a. Mult Scler. 2014 Apr;20(4):445–450.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang Z, Xie J, Wu C, et al. Correlation between smoking and passive smoking with multiple sclerosis and the underlying molecular mechanisms. Med Sci Monit. 2019 Jan 31;25:893–902.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alrouji M, Manouchehrinia A, Gran B, et al. Effects of cigarette smoke on immunity, neuroinflammation and multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimmunol. 2019 Apr 15;329:24–34.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sawcer S, Hellenthal G. The major histocompatibility complex and multiple sclerosis: a smoking gun? Brain. 2011 Mar;134(Pt 3):638–640.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rubio JP, Bahlo M, Butzkueven H, et al. Genetic dissection of the human leukocyte antigen region by use of haplotypes of Tasmanians with multiple sclerosis. Am J Hum Genet. 2002 May;70(5):1125–1137.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maghbooli Z, Sahraian MA, Naser Moghadasi A. Multiple sclerosis and human leukocyte antigen genotypes: focus on the Middle East and North Africa region. Mult Scler J Exp Transl Clin. 2020;Jan-Mar;6(1):2055217319881775.
   Google Scholar
• Hedstrom AK, Katsoulis M, Hossjer O, et al. The interaction between smoking and HLA genes in multiple sclerosis: replication and refinement. Eur J Epidemiol. 2017 Oct;32(10):909–919.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedstrom AK, Bomfim IL, Barcellos LF, et al. Interaction between passive smoking and two HLA genes with regard to multiple sclerosis risk. Int J Epidemiol. 2014 Dec;43(6):1791–1798.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedstrom AK, Sundqvist E, Baarnhielm M, et al. Smoking and two human leukocyte antigen genes interact to increase the risk for multiple sclerosis. Brain. 2011 Mar;134(Pt 3):653–664.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lavery AM, Collins BN, Waldman AT, et al. The contribution of secondhand tobacco smoke exposure to pediatric multiple sclerosis risk. Mult Scler. 2019 Apr;25(4):515–522.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mitchell RE, Bates K, Wootton RE, et al. Little evidence for an effect of smoking on multiple sclerosis risk: a Mendelian randomization study. PLoS Biol. 2020 Nov;18(11):e3000973.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vandebergh M, Goris A. Smoking and multiple sclerosis risk: a Mendelian randomization study. J Neurol. 2020 Oct;267(10):3083–3091.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiland TJ, Hadgkiss EJ, Jelinek GA, et al. The association of alcohol consumption and smoking with quality of life, disability and disease activity in an international sample of people with multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Sci. 2014 Jan 15;336(1–2):211–219.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramanujam R, Hedstrom AK, Manouchehrinia A, et al. Effect of smoking cessation on multiple sclerosis prognosis. JAMA Neurol. 2015 Oct;72(10):1117–1123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simpson Jr S Jr., der Mei IV, Taylor B. The role of Vitamin D in multiple sclerosis: biology and biochemistry, epidemiology and potential roles in treatment. Med Chem. 2018 Feb 6;14(2):129–143.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKay KA, Jahanfar S, Duggan T, et al. Factors associated with onset, relapses or progression in multiple sclerosis: a systematic review. NeuroToxicology. 2017;61:189–212.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ismailova K, Poudel P, Parlesak A, et al. Vitamin D in early life and later risk of multiple sclerosis—A systematic review, meta-analysis. PLOS ONE. 2019;14(8):e0221645.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jasper EA, Nidey NL, Schweizer ML, et al. Gestational vitamin D and offspring risk of multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Epidemiol. 2020 Mar;43:11–17.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duan S, Lv Z, Fan X, et al. Vitamin D status and the risk of multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Lett. 2014 Jun 6;570:108–113.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oliveira M, Padrao A, Ramalho A, et al. Geospatial analysis of environmental atmospheric risk factors in neurodegenerative diseases: a systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020 Nov 13;17(22):8414.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaludjerovic J, Vieth R. Relationship between Vitamin D during perinatal development and health. J Midwifery Women’s Health. 2010;55(6):550–560.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabel CE, Pearson JF, Mason DF, et al. The latitude gradient for multiple sclerosis prevalence is established in the early lifecourse. Brain. 2021 Mar 11;144:2038–2046.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kragt J, Van Amerongen B, Killestein J, et al. Higher levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D are associated with a lower incidence of multiple sclerosis only in women. Mult Scler J. 2009;15(1):9–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaygannejad V, Golabchi K, Haghighi S, et al. A comparative study of 25 (OH) Vitamin D serum levels in patients with multiple sclerosis and control group in Isfahan, Iran. Int J Prev Med. 2010;1(3):195–201.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bettencourt A, Boleixa D, Reguengo H, et al. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in multiple sclerosis patients from the north of Portugal. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2018 Jun;180:137–141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiddes B, Wason J, Kemppinen A, et al. Confounding underlies the apparent month of birth effect in multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol. 2013;73(6):714–720.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ueda P, Rafatnia F, Baarnhielm M, et al. Neonatal vitamin D status and risk of multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol. 2014 Sep;76(3):338–346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martínez-Lapiscina EH, Mahatanan R, Lee C-H, et al. Associations of serum 25(OH) vitamin D levels with clinical and radiological outcomes in multiple sclerosis, a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurol Sci. 2020;411:116668.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramagopalan SV, Maugeri NJ, Handunnetthi L, et al. Expression of the multiple sclerosis-associated MHC class II Allele HLA-DRB1*1501 is regulated by vitamin D. PLoS Genet. 2009 Feb;5(2):e1000369.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pierrot-Deseilligny C, Souberbielle JC. Vitamin D and multiple sclerosis: an update. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2017 May;14:35–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baarnhielm M, Hedstrom AK, Kockum I, et al. Sunlight is associated with decreased multiple sclerosis risk: no interaction with human leukocyte antigen-DRB1*15. Eur J Neurol. 2012 Jul;19(7):955–962.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graves JS, Barcellos LF, Shao X, et al. Genetic predictors of relapse rate in pediatric MS. Mult Scler. 2016 Oct;22(12):1528–1535.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wergeland S, Myhr KM, Loken-Amsrud KI, et al. Vitamin D, HLA-DRB1 and Epstein-Barr virus antibody levels in a prospective cohort of multiple sclerosis patients. Eur J Neurol. 2016 Jun;23(6):1064–1070.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Handunnetthi L, Ramagopalan SV, Ebers GC. Multiple sclerosis, vitamin D, and HLA-DRB1*15. Neurology. 2010 Jun 8;74(23):1905–1910.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLaughlin L, Clarke L, Khalilidehkordi E, et al. Vitamin D for the treatment of multiple sclerosis: a meta-analysis. J Neurol. 2018;265(12):2893–2905.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jagannath VA, Filippini G, Di Pietrantonj C, et al. Vitamin D for the management of multiple sclerosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD008422.pub3.
   Google Scholar
• Berezowska M, Coe S, Dawes H. Effectiveness of Vitamin D supplementation in the management of multiple sclerosis: a systematic review. Int J Mol Sci. 2019;20(6):1301.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balfour HH Jr., Dunmire SK, Hogquist KA. Infectious mononucleosis. Clin Transl Immunology. 2015 Feb;4(2):e33.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Houen G, Trier NH. Epstein-Barr Virus and systemic autoimmune diseases. Front Immunol. 2020;11:587380.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loken-Amsrud KI, Lossius A, Torkildsen O, et al. Impact of the environment on multiple sclerosis. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen. 2015 May 19;135(9):856–860.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lossius A, Johansen JN, Torkildsen O, et al. Epstein-Barr virus in systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis-association and causation. Viruses. 2012 Dec;4(12):3701–3730.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Almohmeed YH, Avenell A, Aucott L, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the sero-epidemiological association between Epstein Barr virus and multiple sclerosis. PLoS One. 2013;8(4):e61110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheik-Ali S. Infectious mononucleosis and multiple sclerosis - Updated review on associated risk. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2017 May;14:56–59.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Handel AE, Williamson AJ, Disanto G, et al. An updated meta-analysis of risk of multiple sclerosis following infectious mononucleosis. PLoS One. 2010 Sep 1;5(9):e12496.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nourbakhsh B, Rutatangwa A, Waltz M, et al. Heterogeneity in association of remote herpesvirus infections and pediatric MS. Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 2018 Oct;5(10):1222–1228.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abdollahpour I, Nedjat S, Mansournia MA, et al. Infectious exposure, antibiotic use, and multiple sclerosis: a population-based incident case-control study. Acta Neurol Scand. 2018 Oct;138(4):308–314.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bistrom M, Jons D, Engdahl E, et al. Epstein-Barr virus infection after adolescence and human herpesvirus 6A as risk factors for multiple sclerosis. Eur J Neurol. 2021 Feb;28(2):579–586.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes AM, Ponsonby AL, Dear K, et al. Childhood infections, vaccinations, and tonsillectomy and risk of first clinical diagnosis of CNS demyelination in the Ausimmune Study. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2020 Jul;42:102062.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abrahamyan S, Eberspacher B, Hoshi MM, et al. Complete Epstein-Barr virus seropositivity in a large cohort of patients with early multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2020 Jul;91(7):681–686.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedstrom AK, Huang J, Michel A, et al. High levels of Epstein-Barr virus nuclear Antigen-1-specific antibodies and infectious mononucleosis act both independently and synergistically to increase multiple sclerosis risk. Front Neurol. 2019;10:1368.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agostini S, Mancuso R, Guerini FR, et al. HLA alleles modulate EBV viral load in multiple sclerosis. J Transl Med. 2018 Mar 27;16(1):80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munger KL, Hongell K, Cortese M, et al. Epstein-barr virus and multiple sclerosis risk in the finnish maternity cohort. Ann Neurol. 2019 Sep;86(3):436–442.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin LI, Munger KL, Rubertone MV, et al. Temporal relationship between elevation of epstein-barr virus antibody titers and initial onset of neurological symptoms in multiple sclerosis. JAMA. 2005 May 25;293(20):2496–2500.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalincik T. Multiple sclerosis relapses: epidemiology, outcomes and management. A systematic review. Neuroepidemiology. 2015;44(4):199–214.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dominguez-Mozo MI, Perez-Perez S, Villar LM, et al. Predictive factors and early biomarkers of response in multiple sclerosis patients treated with natalizumab. Sci Rep. 2020 Aug 28;10(1):14244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giess RM, Pfuhl C, Behrens JR, et al. Epstein-Barr virus antibodies in serum and DNA load in saliva are not associated with radiological or clinical disease activity in patients with early multiple sclerosis. PLoS One. 2017;12(4):e0175279.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs BM, Giovannoni G, Cuzick J, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between Epstein-Barr virus, multiple sclerosis and other risk factors. Mult Scler. 2020 Oct;26(11):1281–1297.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Afrasiabi A, Parnell GP, Swaminathan S, et al. The interaction of multiple sclerosis risk loci with Epstein-Barr virus phenotypes implicates the virus in pathogenesis. Sci Rep. 2020 Jan 13;10(1):193.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marcucci SB, Obeidat AZ. EBNA1, EBNA2, and EBNA3 link Epstein-Barr virus and hypovitaminosis D in multiple sclerosis pathogenesis. J Neuroimmunol. 2020 Feb 15;339:577116.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rolf L, Muris AH, Mathias A, et al. Exploring the effect of vitamin D3 supplementation on the anti-EBV antibody response in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2018 Sep;24(10):1280–1287.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boesen MS, Koch-Henriksen N, Thygesen LC, et al. Infections seem to be more frequent before onset of pediatric multiple sclerosis: a Danish nationwide nested case-control study. Mult Scler. 2019 May;25(6):783–791.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsai CL, Lee JT, Lien LM, et al. The association between septicemia and the risk of multiple sclerosis: a nationwide register-based retrospective cohort study in Taiwan. Qjm. 2018 Sep 1;111(9):605–611.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu X, Zhang Y, Li Q. Characteristics of herpes simplex virus infection and pathogenesis suggest a strategy for vaccine development. Rev Med Virol. 2019 Jul;29(4):e2054.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cole S. Herpes simplex virus: epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment. Nurs Clin North Am. 2020 Sep;55(3):337–345.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bello-Morales R, Andreu S, Lopez-Guerrero JA. The role of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 infection in demyelination of the central nervous system. Int J Mol Sci. 2020 Jul 16;21:14.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steiner I, Kennedy PG, Pachner AR. The neurotropic herpes viruses: herpes simplex and varicella-zoster. Lancet Neurol. 2007 Nov;6(11):1015–1028.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu L, Zhang LJ, Yang L, et al. Positive association of herpes simplex virus-IgG with multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2021 Jan;47:102633.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kira JI, Isobe N. Helicobacter pylori infection and demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. J Neuroimmunol. 2019 Apr 15;329:14–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jaruvongvanich V, Sanguankeo A, Jaruvongvanich S, et al. Association between Helicobacter pylori infection and multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2016 May;7:92–97.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yao G, Wang P, Luo XD, et al. Meta-analysis of association between Helicobacter pylori infection and multiple sclerosis. Neurosci Lett. 2016 May 4;620:1–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson NA, Robins TG, White RF, et al. A case-control study of chronic neuropsychiatric disease and organic solvent exposure in automobile assembly plant workers. Occup Environ Med. 1994 May;51(5):302–307.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerhardsson L, Hou L, Pettersson K. Work-related exposure to organic solvents and the risk for multiple sclerosis-a systematic review. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2021 Feb;94(2):221–229.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barragan-Martinez C, Speck-Hernandez CA, Montoya-Ortiz G, et al. Organic solvents as risk factor for autoimmune diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2012;7(12):e51506.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hedstrom AK, Hossjer O, Katsoulis M, et al. Organic solvents and MS susceptibility: interaction with MS risk HLA genes. Neurology. 2018 Jul 31;91(5):e455–e462.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olsson T, Barcellos LF, Alfredsson L. Interactions between genetic, lifestyle and environmental risk factors for multiple sclerosis. Nat Rev Neurol. 2017 Jan;13(1):25–36.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perry DC, Sturm VE, Peterson MJ, et al. Association of traumatic brain injury with subsequent neurological and psychiatric disease: a meta-analysis. J Neurosurg. 2016 Feb;124(2):511–526.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lunny CA, Fraser SN, Knopp-Sihota JA. Physical trauma and risk of multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. J Neurol Sci. 2014 Jan 15;336(1–2):13–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Povolo CA, Reid JN, Shariff SZ, et al. Concussion in adolescence and the risk of multiple sclerosis: a retrospective cohort study. Mult Scler. 2021 Feb;27(2):180–187.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montgomery S, Hiyoshi A, Burkill S, et al. Concussion in adolescence and risk of multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol. 2017 Oct;82(4):554–561.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aimola G, Beythien G, Aswad A, et al. Current understanding of human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) chromosomal integration. Antiviral Res. 2020 Apr;176:104720.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inoue N, Dambaugh TR, Pellett PE. Molecular biology of human herpesviruses 6A and 6B. Infect Agents Dis. 1993Dec;2(6):343–360.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pormohammad A, Azimi T, Falah F, et al. Relationship of human herpes virus 6 and multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Cell Physiol. 2018 Apr;233(4):2850–2862.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fulkerson HL, Nogalski MT, Collins-McMillen D, et al. Overview of human cytomegalovirus pathogenesis. Methods Mol Biol. 2021;2244:1–18.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thakolwiboon S, Zhao-Fleming H, Karukote A, et al. Regional differences in the association of cytomegalovirus seropositivity and multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2020 Oct;45:102393.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sundqvist E, Bergstrom T, Daialhosein H, et al. Cytomegalovirus seropositivity is negatively associated with multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2014 Feb;20(2):165–173.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Song Y, Li X, Wei X, et al. Human endogenous retroviruses as biomedicine markers. Virol Sin. 2021 Apr 27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12250-021-00387-7.
   Google Scholar
• Groger V, Emmer A, Staege MS, et al. Endogenous retroviruses in nervous system disorders. Pharmaceuticals (Basel). 2021 Jan 16;14(1):70.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morandi E, Tanasescu R, Tarlinton RE, et al. The association between human endogenous retroviruses and multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2017;12(2):e0172415.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arneth B. Up-to-date knowledge about the association between multiple sclerosis and the reactivation of human endogenous retrovirus infections. J Neurol. 2018 Aug;265(8):1733–1739.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fabiani S, Pinto B, Bonuccelli U, et al. Neurobiological studies on the relationship between toxoplasmosis and neuropsychiatric diseases. J Neurol Sci. 2015 Apr 15;351(1–2):3–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saberi R, Sharif M, Sarvi S, et al. Is Toxoplasma gondii playing a positive role in multiple sclerosis risk? A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neuroimmunol. 2018 Sep 15;322:57–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicoletti A, Cicero CE, Giuliano L, et al. Toxoplasma gondii and multiple sclerosis: a population-based case-control study. Sci Rep. 2020 Nov 2;10(1):18855.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mendez-Hernandez EM, Hernandez-Tinoco J, Salas-Pacheco JM, et al. Toxoplasma gondii infection and multiple sclerosis: an age- and a gender-matched case-control seroprevalence study. Eur J Microbiol Immunol (Bp). 2020 Jul 2;10:76–79.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smallwood TB, Giacomin PR, Loukas A, et al. Helminth immunomodulation in autoimmune disease. Front Immunol. 2017;8:453.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaccone P, Fehervari Z, Phillips JM, et al. Parasitic worms and inflammatory diseases. Parasite Immunol. 2006 Oct;28(10):515–523.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang M, Wu L, Weng R, et al. Therapeutic potential of helminths in autoimmune diseases: helminth-derived immune-regulators and immune balance. Parasitol Res. 2017 Aug;116(8):2065–2074.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taghipour A, Rostami A, Esfandyari S, et al. “Begging the question”-Does Toxocara infection/exposure associate with multiple sclerosis-risk? Pathogens. 2020 Nov 11;9(11):938.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fan CK. Pathogenesis of cerebral toxocariasis and neurodegenerative diseases. Adv Parasitol. 2020;109:233–259.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dixit A, Tanaka A, Greer JM, et al. Novel therapeutics for multiple sclerosis designed by parasitic worms. Int J Mol Sci. 2017 Oct 13;18(10):2141.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fleming JO, Isaak A, Lee JE, et al. Probiotic helminth administration in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: a phase 1 study. Mult Scler. 2011 Jun;17(6):743–754.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fleming J, Hernandez G, Hartman L, et al. Safety and efficacy of helminth treatment in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: results of the HINT 2 clinical trial. Mult Scler. 2019 Jan;25(1):81–91.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanasescu R, Tench CR, Constantinescu CS, et al. Hookworm treatment for relapsing multiple sclerosis: a randomized double-blinded placebo-controlled trial. JAMA Neurol. 2020 Sep 1;77(9):1089–1098.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bagos PG, Nikolopoulos G, Ioannidis A. Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and the risk of multiple sclerosis: a meta-analysis. Mult Scler. 2006 Aug;12(4):397–411.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saberi A, Akhondzadeh S, Kazemi S. Infectious agents and different course of multiple sclerosis: a systematic review. Acta Neurol Belg. 2018 Sep;118(3):361–377.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook SD, Dowling PC, Russell WC. Neutralizing antibodies to canine distemper and measles virus in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Sci. 1979 Mar;41(1):61–70.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rohowsky-Kochan C, Davidow A, Dowling P, et al. Increased frequency of canine distemper virus-specific antibodies in multiple sclerosis. Brain Behav. 2021 Jan;11(1):e01920.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soderholm J, Yilmaz A, Svenningsson A, et al. Lower risk of multiple sclerosis in patients with chronic hepatitis C: a nationwide population-based registry study. J Neurol. 2019 Sep;266(9):2208–2215.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gold J, Goldacre R, Maruszak H, et al. HIV and lower risk of multiple sclerosis: beginning to unravel a mystery using a record-linked database study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2015 Jan;86(1):9–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gold J, Marta M, Meier UC, et al. A phase II baseline versus treatment study to determine the efficacy of raltegravir (Isentress) in preventing progression of relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis as determined by gadolinium-enhanced MRI: the INSPIRE study. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2018 Aug;24:123–128.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cicero CE, Mostile G, Vasta R, et al. Metals and neurodegenerative diseases. a systematic review. Environ Res. 2017 Nov;159:82–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen P, Miah MR, Aschner M. Metals and neurodegeneration. F1000Res. 2016;5:366.
   Google Scholar
• Sarmadi M, Bidel Z, Najafi F, et al. Copper concentration in multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2020 Oct;45:102426.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Visconti A, Cotichini R, Cannoni S, et al. Concentration of elements in serum of patients affected by multiple sclerosis with first demyelinating episode: a six-month longitudinal follow-up study. Ann Ist Super Sanita. 2005;41(2):217–222.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aminzadeh KK, Etminan M. Dental amalgam and multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Public Health Dent. 2007;67(1):64–66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomson EM. Air pollution, stress, and allostatic load: linking systemic and central nervous system impacts. J Alzheimers Dis. 2019;69(3):597–614.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fu P, Guo X, Cheung FMH, et al. The association between PM2.5 exposure and neurological disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sci Total Environ. 2019 Mar 10;655:1240–1248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turk Boru U, Boluk C, Tasdemir M, et al. Air pollution, a possible risk factor for multiple sclerosis. Acta Neurol Scand. 2020 May;141(5):431–437.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergamaschi R, Monti MC, Trivelli L, et al. PM2.5 exposure as a risk factor for multiple sclerosis. An ecological study with a Bayesian mapping approach. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2021 Jan;28(3):2804–2809.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tateo F, Grassivaro F, Ermani M, et al. PM2.5 levels strongly associate with multiple sclerosis prevalence in the Province of Padua, Veneto Region, North-East Italy. Mult Scler. 2019 Nov;25(13):1719–1727.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scartezzini A, Tateo F, Perini P, et al. Association of multiple sclerosis with PM 2.5 levels. Further evidence from the highly polluted area of Padua Province, Italy. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2021 Feb;48:102677.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Giovannoni G, Hawkes CH, Lechner-Scott J, et al. Air pollution and multiple sclerosis risk. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2021 Feb;48:102797.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noorimotlagh Z, Azizi M, Pan HF, et al. Association between air pollution and multiple sclerosis: a systematic review. Environ Res. 2020;28:110386.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lavery AM, Waubant E, Casper TC, et al. Urban air quality and associations with pediatric multiple sclerosis. Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 2018 Oct;5(10):1146–1153.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lavery AM, Waldman AT, Charles Casper T, et al. Examining the contributions of environmental quality to pediatric multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler Relat Disord. 2017 Nov;18:164–169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bergamaschi R, Cortese A, Pichiecchio A, et al. Air pollution is associated to the multiple sclerosis inflammatory activity as measured by brain MRI. Mult Scler. 2018 Oct;24(12):1578–1584.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashtari F, Esmaeil N, Mansourian M, et al. An 8-year study of people with multiple sclerosis in Isfahan, Iran: association between environmental air pollutants and severity of disease. J Neuroimmunol. 2018 Jun 15;319:106–111.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jeanjean M, Bind MA, Roux J, et al. Ozone, NO2 and PM10 are associated with the occurrence of multiple sclerosis relapses. Evidence from seasonal multi-pollutant analyses. Environ Res. 2018 May;163:43–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cryan JF, O’Riordan KJ, Sandhu K, et al. The gut microbiome in neurological disorders. Lancet Neurol. 2020 Feb;19(2):179–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montassier E, Berthelot L, Soulillou JP. Are the decrease in circulating anti-alpha1,3-Gal IgG and the lower content of galactosyl transferase A1 in the microbiota of patients with multiple sclerosis a novel environmental risk factor for the disease? Mol Immunol. 2018 Jan;93:162–165.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerhardt S, Mohajeri MH. Changes of colonic bacterial composition in Parkinson’s disease and other neurodegenerative diseases. Nutrients. 2018 Jun 1;10(6):708.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forbes JD, Chen CY, Knox NC, et al. A comparative study of the gut microbiota in immune-mediated inflammatory diseases-does a common dysbiosis exist? Microbiome. 2018 Dec 13;6(1):221.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cekanaviciute E, Yoo BB, Runia TF, et al. Gut bacteria from multiple sclerosis patients modulate human T cells and exacerbate symptoms in mouse models. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2017 Oct 3;114(40):10713–10718.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyake S, Kim S, Suda W, et al. Dysbiosis in the gut microbiota of patients with multiple sclerosis, with a striking depletion of species belonging to Clostridia XIVa and IV clusters. PLoS One. 2015;10(9):e0137429.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen J, Chia N, Kalari KR, et al. Multiple sclerosis patients have a distinct gut microbiota compared to healthy controls. Sci Rep. 2016 Jun 27;6:28484.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tremlett H, Fadrosh DW, Faruqi AA, et al. Gut microbiota in early pediatric multiple sclerosis: a case-control study. Eur J Neurol. 2016 Aug;23(8):1308–1321.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jangi S, Gandhi R, Cox LM, et al. Alterations of the human gut microbiome in multiple sclerosis. Nat Commun. 2016 Jun 28;7:12015.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zeng Q, Gong J, Liu X, et al. Gut dysbiosis and lack of short chain fatty acids in a Chinese cohort of patients with multiple sclerosis. Neurochem Int. 2019 Oct;129:104468.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Takewaki D, Suda W, Sato W, et al. Alterations of the gut ecological and functional microenvironment in different stages of multiple sclerosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020 Sep 8;117(36):22402–22412.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Probstel AK, Baranzini SE. The role of the gut microbiome in multiple sclerosis risk and progression: towards characterization of the “MS microbiome.” Neurotherapeutics. 2018 Jan;15(1):126–134.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miyake S, Yamamura T. Gut environmental factors and multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimmunol. 2019 Apr 15;329:20–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ventura RE, Iizumi T, Battaglia T, et al. Gut microbiome of treatment-naive MS patients of different ethnicities early in disease course. Sci Rep. 2019 Nov 8;9(1):16396.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feychting M, Jonsson F, Pedersen NL, et al. Occupational magnetic field exposure and neurodegenerative disease. Epidemiology. 2003 Jul;144:413–419. discussion 427-8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johansen C. Exposure to electromagnetic fields and risk of central nervous system disease in utility workers. Epidemiology. 2000 Sep;11(5):539–543.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vergara X, Kheifets L, Greenland S, et al. Occupational exposure to extremely low-frequency magnetic fields and neurodegenerative disease: a meta-analysis. J Occup Environ Med. 2013 Feb;55(2):135–146.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pedersen C, Poulsen AH, Rod NH, et al. Occupational exposure to extremely low-frequency magnetic fields and risk for central nervous system disease: an update of a Danish cohort study among utility workers. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2017 Oct;90(7):619–628.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monteiro L, Souza-Machado A, Menezes C, et al. Association between allergies and multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Neurol Scand. 2011;123(1):1–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourne T, Waltz M, Casper TC, et al. Evaluating the association of allergies with multiple sclerosis susceptibility risk and disease activity in a pediatric population. J Neurol Sci. 2017 Apr 15;375:371–375.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ren J, Ni H, Kim M, et al. Allergies, antibiotics use, and multiple sclerosis. Curr Med Res Opin. 2017 08; 33(8): 1451–1456.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fakih R, Diaz-Cruz C, Chua AS, et al. Food allergies are associated with increased disease activity in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2019 Jun;90(6):629–635.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mouchet J, Salvo F, Raschi E, et al. Hepatitis B vaccination and the putative risk of central demyelinating diseases – a systematic review and meta-analysis. Vaccine. 2018;36(12):1548–1555.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sestili C, Grazina I, La Torre G. HBV vaccine and risk of developing multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2021 Jul 3;17(7):2273-2278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Pietrantonj C, Rivetti A, Marchione P, et al. Vaccines for measles, mumps, rubella, and varicella in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2020;(4;4).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mailand MT, Frederiksen JL. Vaccines and multiple sclerosis: a systematic review. J Neurol. 2017;264(6):1035–1050.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farez MF, Correale J. Immunizations and risk of multiple sclerosis: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Neurol. 2011;258(7):1197–1206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mouchet J, Salvo F, Raschi E, et al. Human papillomavirus vaccine and demyelinating diseases—A systematic review and meta-analysis. Pharmacol Res. 2018;132:108–118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hapfelmeier A, Gasperi C, Donnachie E, et al. A large case-control study on vaccination as risk factor for multiple sclerosis. Neurology. 2019 Aug 27;93(9):e908–e916.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hernán MA, Alonso A, Hernández-Díaz S. Tetanus vaccination and risk of multiple sclerosis: a systematic review. Neurology. 2006 Jul 25;67(2):212–215.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Modifiable lifestyle factors and MS: a guide for health professionals. MS Research Australia; [ updated 2020 Aug]. Available from: https://msra.org.au/modifiable-lifestyle-guide-2020/health-professionals/
   Google Scholar