Safety considerations of anesthetic drugs in children

References

• Paterson N, Waterhouse P. Risk in pediatric anesthesia. Paediatr Anaesth. 2011;21:848–857.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keenan RL, Boyan CP. Cardiac arrest due to anesthesia. A study of incidence and causes. Jama. 1985;253:2373–2377.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keenan RL, Shapiro JH, Dawson K. Frequency of anesthetic cardiac arrests in infants: effect of pediatric anesthesiologists. J Clin Anesth. 1991;3:433–437.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Keenan RL, Shapiro JH, Kane FR, et al. Bradycardia during anesthesia in infants. An epidemiologic study. Anesthesiology. 1994;80:976–982.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morray JP, Geiduschek JM, Ramamoorthy C, et al. Anesthesia-related cardiac arrest in children: initial findings of the Pediatric Perioperative Cardiac Arrest (POCA) Registry. Anesthesiology. 2000;93:6–14.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baum VC, Palmisano BW. The immature heart and anesthesia. Anesthesiology. 1997;87:1529–1548.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mansell A, Bryan C, Levison H. Airway closure in children. J Appl Physiol. 1972;33:711–714.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boughton K, Gandy G, Gairdner D. Hyaline membrane disease. II. Lung lecithin. Arch Dis Child. 1970;45:311–320.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldring RM, Fishman AP, Turino GM, et al. Pulmonary hypertension and cor pulmonale in cystic fibrosis of the pancreas. J Pediatr. 1964;65:501–524.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz GJ, Brion LP, Spitzer A. The use of plasma creatinine concentration for estimating glomerular filtration rate in infants, children, and adolescents. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1987;34:571–590.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammarlund K, Sedin G, Strömberg B. Transepidermal water loss in newborn infants. VIII. Relation to gestational age and post-natal age in appropriate and small for gestational age infants. Acta Paediatr Scand. 1983;72:721–728.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levison H, Linsao L, Swyer PR. A comparison of infra-red and convective heating for newborn infants. Lancet. 1966;2:1346–1348.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kearns GL, Abdel-Rahman SM, Alander SW, et al. Developmental pharmacology – drug disposition, action, and therapy in infants and children. N Engl J Med. 2003;349:1157–1167.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hines RN. The ontogeny of drug metabolism enzymes and implications for adverse drug events. Pharmacol Ther. 2008;118:250–267.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morselli PL, Franco-Morselli R, Bossi L. Clinical pharmacokinetics in newborns and infants. Age-related differences and therapeutic implications. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1980;5:485–527.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell IA, Miller Hance WC, Gregory G, et al. The safety and efficacy of sevoflurane anesthesia in infants and children with congenital heart disease. Anesth Analg. 2001;92:1152–1158.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Habre W, Scalfaro P, Sims C, et al. Respiratory mechanics during sevoflurane anesthesia in children with and without asthma. Anesth Analg. 1999;89:1177–1181.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von Ungern-Sternberg BS, Saudan S, Petak F, et al. Desflurane but not sevoflurane impairs airway and respiratory tissue mechanics in children with susceptible airways. Anesthesiology. 2008;108:216–224.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Welborn LG, Hannallah RS, Norden JM, et al. Comparison of emergence and recovery characteristics of sevoflurane, desflurane, and halothane in pediatric ambulatory patients. Anesth Analg. 1996;83:917–920.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dikmen Y, Eminoglu E, Salihoglu Z, et al. Pulmonary mechanics during isoflurane, sevoflurane and desflurane anaesthesia. Anaesthesia. 2003;58:745–748.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCann ME, Soriano SG. General anesthetics in pediatric anesthesia: influences on the developing brain. Curr Drug Targets. 2012;13:944–951.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ikonomidou C, Bosch F, Miksa M, et al. Blockade of NMDA receptors and apoptotic neurodegeneration in the developing brain. Science. 1999;283:70–74.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slikker W Jr, Zou X, Hotchkiss CE, et al. Ketamine-induced neuronal cell death in the perinatal rhesus monkey. Toxicol Sci. 2007;98:145–158.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilder RT, Flick RP, Sprung J, et al. Early exposure to anesthesia and learning disabilities in a population-based birth cohort. Anesthesiology. 2009;110:796–804.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalkman CJ, Peelen L, Moons KG, et al. Behavior and development in children and age at the time of first anesthetic exposure. Anesthesiology. 2009;110:805–812.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davidson AJ, Disma N, de Graaff JC, et al. Neurodevelopmental outcome at 2 years of age after general anaesthesia and awake-regional anaesthesia in infancy (GAS): an international multicentre, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2016;387:239–250.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sun LS, Li G, Miller TL, et al. Association between a single general anesthesia exposure before age 36 months and neurocognitive outcomes in later childhood. Jama. 2016;315:2312–2320.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopkins PM. Malignant hyperthermia: pharmacology of triggering. Br J Anaesth. 2011;107:48–56.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ducart A, Adnet P, Renaud B, et al. Malignant hyperthermia during sevoflurane administration. Anesth Analg. 1995;80:609–611.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson TE. Malignant hyperthermia: a pharmacogenetic disease of Ca++ regulating proteins. Curr Mol Med. 2002;2:347–369.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ryan JF, Lopez JR, Sanchez VB, et al. Myoplasmic calcium changes precede metabolic and clinical signs of porcine malignant hyperthermia. Anesth Analg. 1994;79:1007–1011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sambuughin N, Holley H, Muldoon S, et al. Screening of the entire ryanodine receptor type 1 coding region for sequence variants associated with malignant hyperthermia susceptibility in the North American population. Anesthesiology. 2005;102:515–521.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg H, Sambuughin N, Riazi S, et al. Malignant hyperthermia susceptibility. In Pagon RA, Adam MP, Ardinger HH, et al. editors. GeneReviews® [Internet]. Seattle (WA):University of Washington, Seattle;1993–2016.
   Google Scholar
• Monnier N, Kozak-Ribbens G, Krivosic-Horber R, et al. Correlations between genotype and pharmacological, histological, functional, and clinical phenotypes in malignant hyperthermia susceptibility. Hum Mutat. 2005;26:413–425.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hug CC Jr, McLeskey CH, Nahrwold ML, et al. Hemodynamic effects of propofol: data from over 25,000 patients. Anesth Analg. 1993;77:S21–9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koroglu A, Teksan H, Sagir O, et al. A comparison of the sedative, hemodynamic, and respiratory effects of dexmedetomidine and propofol in children undergoing magnetic resonance imaging. Anesth Analg. 2006;103:63–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strickland RA, Murray MJ. Fatal metabolic acidosis in a pediatric patient receiving an infusion of propofol in the intensive care unit: is there a relationship? Crit Care Med. 1995;23:405–409.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bray RJ. Propofol infusion syndrome in children. Paediatr Anaesth. 1998;8:491–499.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• van Lingen RA, Simons SH, Anderson BJ, et al. The effects of analgesia in the vulnerable infant during the perinatal period. Clin Perinatol. 2002;29:511–534.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dewhirst E, Naguib A, Tobias JD. Chest wall rigidity in two infants after low-dose fentanyl administration. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2012;28:465–468.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosen GM, Muckle RP, Mahowald MW, et al. Postoperative respiratory compromise in children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: can it be anticipated? Pediatrics. 1994;93:784–788.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldman JL, Baugh RF, Davies L, et al. Mortality and major morbidity after tonsillectomy: etiologic factors and strategies for prevention. Laryngoscope. 2013;123:2544–2553.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu J, Li P, Wu X, et al. Chronic intermittent hypoxia decreases pain sensitivity and increases the expression of HIF1α and opioid receptors in experimental rats. Sleep Breath. 2015;19:561–568.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams DG, Hatch DJ, Howard RF. Codeine phosphate in paediatric medicine. Br J Anaesth. 2001;86:413–421.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tremlett M, Anderson BJ, Wolf A. Pro-con debate: is codeine a drug that still has a useful role in pediatric practice? Paediatr Anaesth. 2010;20:183–194.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allegaert K, Cossey V, Debeer A, et al. The impact of ibuprofen on renal clearance in preterm infants is independent of the gestational age. Pediatr Nephrol. 2005;20:740–743.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allegaert K, Anderson BJ, Naulaers G, et al. Intravenous paracetamol (propacetamol) pharmacokinetics in term and preterm neonates. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2004;60:191–197.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mogensen F, Müller D, Valentin N. Glycopyrrolate during ketamine/diazepam anaesthesia. A double-blind comparison with atropine. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1986;30:332–336.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCaughey TJ. Hazards of anaesthesia for the burned child. Can Anaes Soc J. 1962;9:220–233.
   Google Scholar
• Cooperman LH. Succinylcholine-induced hyperkalemia in neuromuscular disease. Jama. 1970;14(213):1867–1871.
   Google Scholar
• Larach MG, Rosenberg H, Gronert GA, et al. Hyperkalemic cardiac arrest during anesthesia in infants and children with occult myopathies. Clin Pediatr (Phila). 1997;36:9–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goudsouzian NG. Recent changes in the package insert for succinylcholine chloride: should this drug be contraindicated for routine use in children and adolescents? Anesth Analg. 1995;80:207–208.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddy JI, Cooke PJ, van Schalkwyk JM, et al. Anaphylaxis is more common with rocuronium and succinylcholine than with atracurium. Anesthesiology. 2015;122:39–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy GS, Szokol JW, Marymont JH, et al. Residual neuromuscular blockade and critical respiratory events in the postanesthesia care unit. Anesth Analg. 2008;107:130–137.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polaner DM, Houck CS, Section on Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine. American Academy of Pediatrics. Critical elements for the pediatric perioperative anesthesia environment. Pediatrics. 2015;136:1200–1205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar