Current treatment options for secondary hyperparathyroidism in patients with stage 3 to 4 chronic kidney disease and vitamin D deficiency

References

• Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD-MBD Update Work Group. 2017 clinical practice guideline update for the diagnosis, evaluation, prevention, and treatment of chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorder (CKD-MBD). Kidney Int Suppl. 2017;7(1):1–59.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galassi A, Cupisti A, Santoro A, et al. Phosphate balance in ESRD: diet, dialysis and binders against the low evident masked pool. J Nephrol. 2015;28(4):415–429.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolf M. Forging forward with 10 burning questions on FGF23 in kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010;21(9):1427–1435.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Kidney Foundation. K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines for bone metabolism and disease in chronic kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis. 2003;42(4 Suppl 3):S1–201.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD–MBD Work Group. KDIGO clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, prevention, and treatment of Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone Disorder (CKD-MBD). Kidney Int Suppl. 2009;113:S1–130.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goldsmith DJ, Covic A, Fouque D, et al. Endorsement of the Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral and Bone Disorder (CKD-MBD) Guidelines: a European Renal Best Practice (ERBP) commentary statement. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2010;25(12):3823–3831.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institute for Health and Care Excellence: Clinical Guidelines. Chronic kidney disease in adults: assessment and management. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (UK) Copyright © NICE 2020.; 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Galassi A, Bellasi A, Auricchio S, et al. Which vitamin D in CKD-MBD? The time of burning questions. BioMed Res Int. 2013;2013:864012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melamed ML, Chonchol M, Gutiérrez OM, et al. The role of vitamin D in CKD stages 3 to 4: report of a scientific workshop sponsored by the national kidney foundation. Am J Kidney Dis. 2018;72(6):834–845.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holden RM, Mustafa RA, Alexander RT, et al. Canadian society of nephrology commentary on the kidney disease improving global outcomes 2017 clinical practice guideline update for the diagnosis, evaluation, prevention, and treatment of chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorder. Can J Kidney Health Dis. 2020;7:2054358120944271.
   Google Scholar
• Lu CL, Yeih DF, Hou YC, et al. The emerging role of nutritional vitamin d in secondary hyperparathyroidism in CKD. Nutrients. 2018;10(12):1890.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nielsen PK, Feldt-Rasmussen U, Olgaard K. A direct effect in vitro of phosphate on PTH release from bovine parathyroid tissue slices but not from dispersed parathyroid cells. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1996;11(9):1762–1768.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dusso AS, Pavlopoulos T, Naumovich L, et al. p21(WAF1) and transforming growth factor-alpha mediate dietary phosphate regulation of parathyroid cell growth. Kidney Int. 2001;59(3):855–865.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uribarri J. Phosphorus homeostasis in normal health and in chronic kidney disease patients with special emphasis on dietary phosphorus intake. Semin Dial. 2007;20(4):295–301.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Antoniucci DM, Yamashita T, Portale AA. Dietary phosphorus regulates serum fibroblast growth factor-23 concentrations in healthy men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(8):3144–3149.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torres PU, Prié D, Molina-Blétry V, et al. Klotho: an antiaging protein involved in mineral and vitamin D metabolism. Kidney Int. 2007;71(8):730–737.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ben-Dov IZ, Galitzer H, Lavi-Moshayoff V, et al. The parathyroid is a target organ for FGF23 in rats. J Clin Invest. 2007;117(12):4003–4008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latus J, Lehmann R, Roesel M, et al. Analysis of α-klotho, fibroblast growth factor-, vitamin-D and calcium-sensing receptor in 70 patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism. Kidney Blood Press Res. 2013;37(1):84–94.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holick MF. Vitamin D deficiency. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(3):266–281.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inoue Y, Segawa H, Kaneko I, et al. Role of the vitamin D receptor in FGF23 action on phosphate metabolism. Biochem J. 2005;390(1):325–331.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stubbs JR, Zhang S, Friedman PA, et al. Decreased Conversion of 25-hydroxyvitamin D 3 to 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D 3 Following Cholecalciferol Therapy in Patients with CKD. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2014;9(11):1965–1973.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldsmith DJA. Pro: should we correct vitamin D deficiency/insufficiency in chronic kidney disease patients with inactive forms of vitamin D or just treat them with active vitamin D forms?: table 1. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2016;31(5):698–705.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Melamed ML, Astor B, Michos ED, et al. 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels, race, and the progression of kidney disease. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009;20(12):2631–2639.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Theodoratou E, Tzoulaki I, Zgaga L, et al. Vitamin D and multiple health outcomes: umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses of observational studies and randomised trials. Bmj 2014;348(apr01 2):g2035.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holick MF, Binkley NC, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, et al. Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(7):1911–1930.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capelli I, Cianciolo G, Gasperoni L, et al. Nutritional vitamin D in CKD: should we measure? Should we treat? Clin Chim Acta. 2020;501:186–197.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin A, Bakris GL, Molitch M, et al. Prevalence of abnormal serum vitamin D, PTH, calcium, and phosphorus in patients with chronic kidney disease: results of the study to evaluate early kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2007;71(1):31–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ketteler M, Block GA, Evenepoel P, et al. Executive summary of the 2017 KDIGO Chronic Kidney Disease–Mineral and Bone Disorder (CKD-MBD) Guideline Update: what’s changed and why it matters. Kidney Int. 2017;92(1):1558. 2017;92:26-36. Kidney Int.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galassi A, Bellasi A, Ciceri P, et al. Calcifediol to treat secondary hyperparathyroidism in patients with chronic kidney disease. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol. 2017;10(10):1073–1084.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graeff-Armas LA, Kaufmann M, Lyden E, et al. Serum 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 response to native vitamin D2 and D3 Supplementation in patients with chronic kidney disease on hemodialysis. Clin Nutr. 2018;37(3):1041–1045.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perwad F, Portale AA. Vitamin D metabolism in the kidney: regulation by phosphorus and fibroblast growth factor 23. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2011;347(1–2):17–24.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones G, Strugnell SA, DeLuca HF. Current understanding of the molecular actions of vitamin D. Physiol Rev. 1998;78(4):1193–1231.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cannata-Andia JB, Martin-Carro B, Martin-Virgala J, et al. Chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorders: pathogenesis and management. Calcified Tissue Int. 2021;108(4):410–422.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodriguez-Ortiz ME, Rodriguez M. Recent advances in understanding and managing secondary hyperparathyroidism in chronic kidney disease. F1000Res. 2020;9:1077.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Drueke TB. Hyperparathyroidism in Chronic Kidney Disease. In: Feingold KR, Anawalt B, Boyce A, et al. editors. Endotext. South Dartmouth (MA); 2000.
   Google Scholar
• Bikle DD, Siiteri PK, Ryzen E, et al. Serum protein binding of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D: a reevaluation by direct measurement of free metabolite levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1985;61(5):969–975.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lauridsen AL, Vestergaard P, Hermann AP, et al. Plasma concentrations of 25-hydroxy-vitamin D and 1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D are related to the phenotype of Gc (vitamin D-binding protein): a cross-sectional study on 595 early postmenopausal women. Calcif Tissue Int. 2005;77(1):15–22.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanzarini E, Nogués X, Goday A, et al. High-dose vitamin D supplementation is necessary after bariatric surgery: a prospective 2-year follow-up study. Obes Surg. 2015;25(9):1633–1638.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hileman CO, Overton ET, McComsey GA. Vitamin D and bone loss in HIV. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2016;11(3):277–284.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernandez H, Mohammed HT, Patel PT. Vitamin D supplementation for bone health in adults with epilepsy: a systematic review. Epilepsia. 2018;59(4):885–896.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tebben PJ, Singh RJ, Kumar R. Vitamin D-mediated hypercalcemia: mechanisms, diagnosis, and treatment. Endocr Rev. 2016;37(5):521–547.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ikizler TA, Burrowes JD, Byham-Gray LD, et al. KDOQI clinical practice guideline for nutrition in CKD: 2020 update. Am J Kidney Dis. 2020;76(3 Suppl 1):S1–s107.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abbas F, Coyne DW. Limited usefulness of calcimimetics for secondary hyperparathyroidism in non-dialysis chronic kidney disease. Kidney Res Clin Pract. 2019;38(2):141–144.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chonchol M, Locatelli F, Abboud HE, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study to assess the efficacy and safety of cinacalcet HCl in participants with CKD not receiving dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis. 2009;53(2):197–207.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charytan C, Coburn JW, Chonchol M, et al. Cinacalcet hydrochloride is an effective treatment for secondary hyperparathyroidism in patients with CKD not receiving dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis. 2005;46(1):58–67.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perez-Ricart A, Galicia-Basart M, Comas-Sugranes D, et al. Long-term effectiveness of cinacalcet in non-dialysis patients with chronic kidney disease and secondary hyperparathyroidism. Kidney Res Clin Pract. 2019;38(2):229–238.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tripkovic L, Lambert H, Hart K, et al. Comparison of vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 supplementation in raising serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;95(6):1357–1364.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horst RL, Reinhardt TA, Ramberg CF, et al. 24-Hydroxylation of 1,25-dihydroxyergocalciferol. An unambiguous deactivation process. J Biol Chem. 1986;261(20):9250–9256.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heaney RP, Recker RR, Grote J, et al. Vitamin D3 is more potent than vitamin D2 in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96(3):E447–52.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armas LAG, Hollis BW, Heaney RP. Vitamin D 2 is much less effective than vitamin D 3 in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89(11):5387–5391.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tjellesen L, Hummer L, Christiansen C, et al. Serum concentration of vitamin D metabolites during treatment with vitamin D2 and D3 in normal premenopausal women. Bone Miner. 1986;1(5):407–413.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nigwekar SU, Bhan I, Thadhani R. Ergocalciferol and cholecalciferol in CKD. Am J Kidney Dis. 2012;60(1):139–156.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kandula P, Dobre M, Schold JD, et al. Vitamin D supplementation in chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies and randomized controlled trials. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2011;6(1):50–62.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chandra P, Binongo JNG, Ziegler TR, et al. Cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) therapy and vitamin D insufficiency in patients with chronic kidney disease: a randomized controlled pilot study. Endocr Pract. 2008;14(1):10–17.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dogan E, Erkoc R, Sayarlioglu H, et al. Effect of depot oral cholecalciferol treatment on secondary hyperparathyroidism in stage 3 and stage 4 chronic kidney diseases patients. Ren Fail. 2008;30(4):407–410.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okša A, Spustová V, Krivošíková Z, et al. Effects of long-term cholecalciferol supplementation on mineral metabolism and calciotropic hormones in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Blood Press Res. 2008;31(5):322–329.
   Google Scholar
• Alvarez JA, Law J, Coakley KE, et al. High-dose cholecalciferol reduces parathyroid hormone in patients with early chronic kidney disease: a pilot, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;96(3):672–679.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marckmann P, Agerskov H, Thineshkumar S, et al. Randomized controlled trial of cholecalciferol supplementation in chronic kidney disease patients with hypovitaminosis D. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2012;27(9):3523–3531.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moe SM, Saifullah A, LaClair RE, et al. A randomized trial of cholecalciferol versus doxercalciferol for lowering parathyroid hormone in chronic kidney disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2010;5(2):299–306.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kovesdy CP, Lu JL, Malakauskas SM, et al. Paricalcitol versus ergocalciferol for secondary hyperparathyroidism in CKD stages 3 and 4: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Kidney Dis. 2012;59(1):58–66.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thimachai P, Supasyndh O, Chaiprasert A, et al. Efficacy of high vs. conventional ergocalciferol dose for increasing 25-hydroxyvitamin d and suppressing parathyroid hormone levels in stage III-IV CKD with vitamin D deficiency/insufficiency: a randomized controlled trial. J Med Assoc Thai. 2015;98(7):643–648.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wetmore JB, Kimber C, Mahnken JD, et al. Cholecalciferol v . ergocalciferol for 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) repletion in chronic kidney disease: a randomised clinical trial. Br J Nutr. 2016;116(12):2074–2081.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang D, Li H, Yin D, et al. Ergocalciferol versus calcitriol for controlling chronic kidney disease mineral bone disorder in stage 3 to 5 CKD: a randomized controlled trial. Eur J Pharmacol. 2016;789:127–133.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Molina P, Górriz JL, Molina MD, et al. The effect of cholecalciferol for lowering albuminuria in chronic kidney disease: a prospective controlled study. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2014;29(1):97–109.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westerberg P-A, Sterner G, Ljunggren Ö, et al. High doses of cholecalciferol alleviate the progression of hyperparathyroidism in patients with CKD Stages 3–4: results of a 12-week double-blind, randomized, controlled study. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2018;33(3):466–471.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cupisti A, Egidi MF, Vigo V, et al. Vitamin D status and cholecalciferol supplementation in chronic kidney disease patients: an Italian cohort report.International Journal of Nephrology and Renovascular Disease. 2015;8:151–157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Restrepo-Valencia CA, Aguirre-Arango JV, Musso CG. Effectiveness of native vitamin D therapy in patients with chronic kidney disease stage 3 and hypovitaminosis D in Colombia, South America. Int J Nephrol Renovascular Dis. 2019;12:241–250.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Dawson-Hughes B, Stöcklin E, et al. Oral supplementation with 25(OH)D 3 versus vitamin D 3 : effects on 25(OH)D levels, lower extremity function, blood pressure, and markers of innate immunity. J Bone Miner Res. 2012;27(1):160–169.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jetter A, Egli A, Dawson-Hughes B, et al. Pharmacokinetics of oral vitamin D3 and calcifediol. Bone 2014;59:14–19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cashman KD, Seamans KM, Lucey AJ, et al. Relative effectiveness of oral 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 and vitamin D3 in raising wintertime serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D in older adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;95(6):1350–1356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petkovich M, Melnick J, White J, et al. Modified-release oral calcifediol corrects vitamin D insufficiency with minimal CYP24A1 upregulation. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2015;148:283–289.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sprague SM, Silva AL, Al-Saghir F, et al. Modified-release calcifediol effectively controls secondary hyperparathyroidism associated with vitamin D insufficiency in chronic kidney disease. Am J Nephrol. 2014;40(6):535–545.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sprague SM, Crawford PW, Melnick JZ, et al. Use of extended-release calcifediol to treat secondary hyperparathyroidism in stages 3 and 4 chronic kidney disease. Am J Nephrol. 2016;44(4):316–325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coyne DW, Goldberg S, Faber M, et al. A randomized multicenter trial of paricalcitol versus calcitriol for secondary hyperparathyroidism in stages 3–4 CKD. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2014;9(9):1620–1626.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coyne DW, Andress DL, Amdahl MJ, et al. Effects of paricalcitol on calcium and phosphate metabolism and markers of bone health in patients with diabetic nephropathy: results of the VITAL study. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2013;28(9):2260–2268.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thadhani R, Appelbaum E, Pritchett Y, et al. Vitamin D therapy and cardiac structure and function in patients with chronic kidney disease: the PRIMO randomized controlled trial. Jama. 2012;307(7):674–684.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang AY-M, Fang F, Chan J, et al. Effect of paricalcitol on left ventricular mass and function in CKD—The OPERA trial. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2014;25(1):175–186 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reichel H. Low-dose alfacalcidol controls secondary hyperparathyroidism in predialysis chronic kidney disease. Nephron Clin Pract. 2010;114(4):c268–76.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nordal KP, Dahl E. Low dose calcitriol versus placebo in patients with predialysis chronic renal failure. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1988;67(5):929–936.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamdy NA, Kanis JA, Beneton MN, et al. Effect of alfacalcidol on natural course of renal bone disease in mild to moderate renal failure. Bmj. 1995;310(6976):358–363.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Balint E, Marshall CF, Sprague SM. Effect of the vitamin D analogues paricalcitol and calcitriol on bone mineral in vitro. Am J Kidney Dis. 2000;36(4):789–796.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakane M, Fey TA, Dixon DB, et al. Differential effects of Vitamin D analogs on bone formation and resorption. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2006;98(1):72–77.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fusaro M, Holden R, Lok C, et al. Phosphate and bone fracture risk in chronic kidney disease patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2021;36(3):405–412. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfz196.
   Google Scholar
• Tsai W-C, Wu H-Y, Peng Y-S, et al. Effects of lower versus higher phosphate diets on fibroblast growth factor-23 levels in patients with chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2018;33(11):1977–1983.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Iorio B, Di Micco L, Torraca S, et al. Acute effects of very-low-protein diet on FGF23 levels: a randomized study. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2012;7(4):581–587.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu EA, Coresh J, Anderson CAM, et al. Adherence to healthy dietary patterns and risk of CKD progression and all-cause mortality: findings from the CRIC (Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort) study. Am J Kidney Dis. 2021;77(2):235–244.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chewcharat A, Takkavatakarn K, Wongrattanagorn S, et al. The effects of restricted protein diet supplemented with ketoanalogue on renal function, blood pressure, nutritional status, and chronic kidney disease-mineral and bone disorder in chronic kidney disease patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Ren Nutr. 2020;30(3):189–199.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Iorio BR, Rocchetti MT, De Angelis M, et al. Nutritional therapy modulates intestinal microbiota and reduces serum levels of total and free indoxyl sulfate and p-cresyl sulfate in chronic kidney disease (medika study). J Clin Med. 2019;8(9):1424.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu W-C, Wu -C-C, Lim P-S, et al. Effect of uremic toxin-indoxyl sulfate on the skeletal system. Clinica Chimica Acta. 2018;484:197–206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ix JH, Isakova T, Larive B, et al. Effects of nicotinamide and lanthanum carbonate on serum phosphate and fibroblast growth factor-23 in CKD: the COMBINE trial. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2019;30(6):1096–1108.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruggiero B, Trillini M, Tartaglione L, et al. Effects of sevelamer carbonate in patients with CKD and proteinuria: the ANSWER randomized trial. Am J Kidney Dis. 2019;74(3):338–350.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Block GA, Wheeler DC, Persky MS, et al. Effects of phosphate binders in moderate CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2012;23(8):1407–1415.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Block GA, Pergola PE, Fishbane S, et al. Effect of ferric citrate on serum phosphate and fibroblast growth factor 23 among patients with nondialysis-dependent chronic kidney disease: path analyses. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2019;34(7):1115–1124.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zoccali C, Ruggenenti P, Perna A, et al. Phosphate may promote CKD progression and attenuate renoprotective effect of ACE inhibition. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2011;22(10):1923–1930.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Iorio BR, Bellizzi V, Bellasi A, et al. Phosphate attenuates the anti-proteinuric effect of very low-protein diet in CKD patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2013;28(3):632–640.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chauveau P, Vendrely B, El Haggan W, et al. Body composition of patients on a very low-protein diet: a two-year survey with DEXA. J Ren Nutr. 2003;13(4):282–287.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galassi A, Ciceri P, Fasulo E, et al. Management of secondary hyperparathyroidism in chronic kidney disease: a focus on the elderly. Drugs Aging. 2019;36(10):885–895.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strugnell SA, Sprague SM, Ashfaq A, et al. Rationale for raising current clinical practice guideline target for serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d in chronic kidney disease. Am J Nephrol. 2019;49(4):284–293.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Boer IH, Sachs MC, Chonchol M, et al. Estimated GFR and circulating 24,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 Concentration: a participant-level analysis of 5 cohort studies and clinical trials. Am J Kidney Dis. 2014;64(2):187–197.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kritmetapak K, Pongchaiyakul C. Parathyroid hormone measurement in chronic kidney disease: from basics to clinical implications. Int J Nephrol. 2019;2019:5496710.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drüeke TB, Massy ZA. Changing bone patterns with progression of chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2016;89(2):289–302.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vervloet MG, Brandenburg VM. Circulating markers of bone turnover. J Nephrol. 2017;30(5):663–670.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jovanovich A, Kendrick J. Personalized management of bone and mineral disorders and precision medicine in end-stage kidney disease. Semin Nephrol. 2018;38(4):397–409.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malluche HH, Mawad HW, Monier-Faugere MC. Renal osteodystrophy in the first decade of the new millennium: analysis of 630 bone biopsies in black and white patients. J Bone Miner Res. 2011;26(6):1368–1376.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gutiérrez OM, Isakova T, Smith K, et al. Racial differences in postprandial mineral ion handling in health and in chronic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2010;25(12):3970–3977.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sawaya BP, Monier-Faugere MC, Ratanapanichkich P, et al. Racial differences in parathyroid hormone levels in patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism. Clin Nephrol. 2002;57(1):51–55.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moe SM, Wetherill L, Decker BS, et al. Calcium-sensing receptor genotype and response to cinacalcet in patients undergoing hemodialysis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2017;12(7):1128–1138.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waziri B, Dix-Peek T, Dickens C, et al. Influence of vitamin D receptor polymorphisms on biochemical markers of mineral bone disorders in South African patients with chronic kidney disease. BMC Nephrol. 2018;19(1):30.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Galassi A, Spiegel DM, Bellasi A, et al. Accelerated vascular calcification and relative hypoparathyroidism in incident haemodialysis diabetic patients receiving calcium binders. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2006;21(11):3215–3222.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charoenngam N, Holick MF. Immunologic effects of vitamin D on human health and disease. Nutrients 2020;12(7):2097.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar