2,010
Views
22
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Reviews

Lower limb stiffness testing in athletic performance: a critical review

ORCID Icon &
Pages 109-130 | Received 04 Oct 2017, Accepted 27 Mar 2018, Published online: 16 May 2018

References

  • Arampatzis, A. , Brüggemann, G. P. , & Metzler, V. (1999). The effect of speed on leg stiffness and joint kinetics in human running. Journal of Biomechanics , 32 , 1349–1353. doi:10.1016/S0021-9290(99)00133-5
  • Arampatzis, A. , Schade, F. , Walsh, M. , & Brüggemann, G. P. (2001). Influence of leg stiffness and its effect on myodynamic jumping performance. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology , 11 , 355–364. doi:10.1016/S1050-6411(01)00009-8
  • Blickhan, R. (1989). The spring-mass model for running and hopping. Journal of Biomechanics , 22 , 1217–1227. doi:10.1016/0021-9290(89)90224-8
  • Bourdin, M. , Rambaud, O. , Dorel, S. , Lacour, J. R. , Moyen, B. , & Rahmani, A. (2010). Throwing performance is associated with muscular power. International Journal of Sports Medicine , 31 , 505–510. doi:10.1055/s-0030-1249622
  • Bret, C. , Rahmani, A. , Dufour, A. B. , Messonnier, L. , & Lacour, J. R. (2002). Leg strength and stiffness as ability factors in 100 m sprint running. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness , 42 , 274–281.
  • Brughelli, M. , & Cronin, J. (2008). A review of research on the mechanical stiffness in running and jumping: Methodology and implications. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports , 18 , 417–426. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2008.00769.x
  • Butler, R. J. , Crowell III, H. P. , & Davis, I. M. (2003). Lower extremity stiffness: Implications for performance and injury. Clinical Biomechanics , 18 , 511–517. doi:10.1016/S0268-0033(03)00071-8
  • Cavagna, G. A. (1975). Force platforms as ergometers. Journal of Applied Physiology , 39 , 174–179. doi:10.1152/jappl.1975.39.1.174
  • Cavagna, G. A. (2006). The landing–take-off asymmetry in human running. Journal of Experimental Biology , 209 , 4051–4060. doi:10.1242/jeb.02344
  • Cavagna, G. A. , Heglund, N. C. , & Willems, P. A. (2005). Effect of an increase in gravity on the power output and the rebound of the body in human running. The Journal of Experimental Biology , 208 , 2333–2346. doi:10.1242/jeb.01661
  • Cavagna, G. A. , Saibene, F. P. , & Margaria, R. (1964). Mechanical work in running. Journal of Applied Physiology , 19 , 249–256. doi:10.1152/jappl.1964.19.2.249
  • Cavanagh, P. R. , & Lafortune, M. A. (1980). Ground reaction forces in distance running. Journal of Biomechanics , 13 , 397–406. doi:10.1016/0021-9290(80)90033-0
  • Chelly, S. M. , & Denis, C. (2001). Leg power and hopping stiffness: Relationship with sprint running performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise , 33 , 326–333. doi:10.1097/00005768-200102000-00024
  • Clark, K. P. , & Weyand, P. G. (2014). Are running speeds maximized with simple-spring stance mechanics? Journal of Applied Physiology , 117 , 604–615. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00174.2014
  • Coleman, D. R. , Cannavan, D. , Horne, S. , & Blazevich, A. J. (2012). Leg stiffness in human running: Comparison of estimates derived from previously published models to direct kinematic-kinetic measures. Journal of Biomechanics , 45 , 1987–1991. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2012.05.010
  • Comyns, T. M. , Harrison, A. J. , Hennessy, L. , & Jensen, R. L. (2007). Identifying the optimal resistive load for complex training in male rugby players. Sports Biomechanics , 6 , 59–70. doi:10.1080/14763140601058540
  • Dalleau, G. , Belli, A. , Viale, F. , Lacour, J. R. , & Bourdin, M. (2004). A simple method for field measurements of leg stiffness in hopping. International Journal of Sports Medicine , 25 , 170–176.
  • Degache, F. , Morin, J. B. , Oehen, L. , Guex, K. , Giardini, G. , Schena, F. , … Millet, G. P. (2016). Running mechanics during the world’s most challenging mountain ultramarathon. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance , 11 , 608–614. doi:10.1123/ijspp.2015-0238
  • Diggin, D. , Anderson, R. , & Harrison, A. J. (2016). An examination of the true reliability of lower limb stiffness measures during overground hopping. Journal of Applied Biomechanics , 32 , 278–286. doi:10.1123/jab.2015-0210
  • Elftman, H. (1939). Forces and energy changes in the leg during walking. American Journal of Physiology , 125 , 339–356. doi:10.1152/ajplegacy.1939.125.2.339
  • Farley, C. T. , Blickhan, R. , Saito, J. , & Taylor, C. R. (1991). Hopping frequency in humans: A test of how springs set stride frequency in bouncing gaits. Journal of Applied Physiology , 71 , 2127–2132. doi:10.1152/jappl.1991.71.6.2127
  • Farley, C. T. , & González, O. (1996). Leg stiffness and stride frequency in human running. Journal of Biomechanics , 29 , 181–186. doi:10.1016/0021-9290(95)00029-1
  • Farley, C. T. , Houdijk, H. H. P. , Van Strien, C. , & Louie, M. (1998). Mechanism of leg stiffness adjustment for hopping on surfaces of different stiffnesses. Journal of Applied Physiology , 85 , 1044–1055. doi:10.1152/jappl.1998.85.3.1044
  • Farley, C. T. , & Morgenroth, D. C. (1999). Leg stiffness primarily depends on ankle stiffness during human hopping. Journal of Biomechanics , 32 , 267–273. doi:10.1016/S0021-9290(98)00170-5
  • Flanagan, E. P. , & Harrison, A. J. (2007). Muscle dynamics differences between legs in healthy adults. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research , 21 , 67–72. doi:10.1519/00124278-200702000-00013
  • Gasser, H. S. , & Hill, A. V. (1924). The dynamics of muscular contraction. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Containing Papers of a Biological Character , 96, 398–437. doi:10.1098/rspb.1924.0035
  • Girard, O. , Brocherie, F. , Morin, J. B. , & Millet, G. P. (2016). Intrasession and intersession reliability of running mechanics during treadmill sprints. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance , 11 , 432–439. doi:10.1123/ijspp.2015-0145
  • Girard, O. , Millet, G. P. , & Micallef, J.-P. (2017). Mechanical alterations during 800-m self-paced track running. International Journal of Sports Medicine , 38 , 314–321. doi:10.1055/s-0042-121262
  • Granata, K. P. , Padua, D. A. , & Wilson, S. E. (2002). Gender differences in active musculoskeletal stiffness. Part II. Quantification of leg stiffness during functional hopping tasks. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology , 12 , 127–135. doi:10.1016/S1050-6411(02)00003-2
  • Günther, M. , & Blickhan, R. (2002). Joint stiffness of the ankle and the knee in running. Journal of Biomechanics , 35 , 1459–1474. doi:10.1016/S0021-9290(02)00183-5
  • Harrison, A. J. , Keane, S. P. , & Coglan, J. (2004). Force-velocity relationship and stretch-shortening cycle function in sprint and endurance athletes. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research , 18 , 473–479. doi:10.1519/13163.1
  • Hayes, P. R. , & Caplan, N. (2014). Leg stiffness decreases during a run to exhaustion at the speed at O2max . European Journal of Sport Science , 14 , 556–562. doi:10.1080/17461391.2013.876102
  • He, J. , Kram, R. , & McMahon, T. A. (1991). Mechanics of running under simulated low gravity. Journal of Applied Physiology , 71 , 863–870. doi:10.1152/jappl.1991.71.3.863
  • Hill, A. V. (1950). The series elastic component in muscle. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences , 137 , 273–280. doi:10.1098/rspb.1950.0035
  • Hobara, H. , Inoue, K. , Kobayashi, Y. , & Ogata, T. (2014). A comparison of computation methods for leg stiffness during hopping. Journal of Applied Biomechanics , 30 , 154–159. doi:10.1123/jab.2012-0285
  • Hobara, H. , Kanosue, K. , & Suzuki, S. (2007). Changes in muscle activity with increase in leg stiffness during hopping. Neuroscience Letters , 418 , 55–59. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2007.02.064
  • Hobara, H. , Kimura, K. , Omuro, K. , Gomi, K. , Muraoka, T. , Iso, S. , & Kanosue, K. (2008). Determinants of difference in leg stiffness between endurance- and power-trained athletes. Journal of Biomechanics , 41 , 506–514. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2007.10.014
  • Hobara, H. , Kimura, K. , Omuro, K. , Gomi, K. , Muraoka, T. , Sakamoto, M. , & Kanosue, K. (2010). Differences in lower extremity stiffness between endurance-trained athletes and untrained subjects. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport , 13 , 106–111. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2008.08.002
  • Hobara, H. , Kobayashi, Y. , Kato, E. , & Ogata, T. (2013). Differences in spring-mass characteristics between one- and two-legged hopping. Journal of Applied Biomechanics , 29 , 785–789. doi:10.1123/jab.29.6.785
  • Hobara, H. , Muraoka, T. , Omuro, K. , Gomi, K. , Sakamoto, M. , Inoue, K. , & Kanosue, K. (2009). Knee stiffness is a major determinant of leg stiffness during maximal hopping. Journal of Biomechanics , 42 , 1768–1771. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2009.04.047
  • Joseph, C. W. , Bradshaw, E. J. , Kemp, J. , & Clark, R. A. (2013). The interday reliability of ankle, knee, leg, and vertical musculoskeletal stiffness during hopping and overground running. Journal of Applied Biomechanics , 29 , 386–394. doi:10.1123/jab.29.4.386
  • Kim, W. , João, F. , Tan, J. , Mota, P. , Vleck, V. , Aguiar, L. , & Veloso, A. (2013). The natural shock absorption of the leg spring. Journal of Biomechanics , 46 , 129–136. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2012.10.041
  • Kuitunen, S. , Komi, P. V. , & Kyröläinen, H. (2002). Knee and ankle joint stiffness in sprint running. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise , 34 , 166–173. doi:10.1097/00005768-200201000-00025
  • Kuitunen, S. , Ogiso, K. , & Komi, P. V. (2011). Leg and joint stiffness in human hopping. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports , 21 , e157–e167. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01202.x
  • Latash, M. L. , & Zatsiorsky, V. M. (1993). Joint stiffness: Myth or reality? Human Movement Science , 12 , 653–692. doi:10.1016/0167-9457(93)90010-M
  • Levin, A. , & Wyman, J. (1927). The viscous elastic properties of muscle. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences , 101 , 218–243. doi:10.1098/rspb.1927.0014
  • Liew, B. X. W. , Morris, S. , Masters, A. , & Netto, K. (2017). A comparison and update of direct kinematic-kinetic models of leg stiffness in human running. Journal of Biomechanics , 64 , 253–257. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2017.09.028
  • Lloyd, R. S. , Oliver, J. L. , Hughes, M. G. , & Williams, C. A. (2009). Reliability and validity of field-based measures of leg stiffness and reactive strength index in youths. Journal of Sports Sciences , 27 , 1565–1573. doi:10.1080/02640410903311572
  • Maloney, S. J. , Fletcher, I. M. , & Richards, J. (2015). Reliability of unilateral vertical leg stiffness measures assessed during bilateral hopping. Journal of Applied Biomechanics , 31 , 285–291. doi:10.1123/jab.2014-0254
  • Maloney, S. J. , Richards, J. , Nixon, D. G. D. , Harvey, L. J. , & Fletcher, I. M. (2017a). Do stiffness and asymmetries predict change of direction performance? Journal of Sports Sciences , 35 , 547–556. doi:10.1080/02640414.2016.1179775
  • Maloney, S. J. , Richards, J. , Nixon, D. G. D. , Harvey, L. J. , & Fletcher, I. M. (2017b). Vertical stiffness asymmetries during drop jumping are related to ankle stiffness asymmetries. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports , 27 , 661–669. doi:10.1111/sms.12682
  • McLachlan, K. A. , Murphy, A. J. , Watsford, M. L. , & Rees, S. (2006). The interday reliability of leg and ankle musculotendinous stiffness measures. Journal of Applied Biomechanics , 22 , 206–304. doi:10.1123/jab.22.4.296
  • McMahon, T. A. , & Cheng, G. C. (1990). The mechanics of running: How does stiffness couple with speed? Journal of Biomechanics , 23 , S65–S78. doi:10.1016/0021-9290(90)90042-2
  • Moir, G. L. , Dale, J. R. , & Dietrich, W. W. (2009). The acute effects of heavy back squats on mechanical variables during a series of bilateral hop. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research , 23 , 1118–1124. doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e31819166c2.
  • Moore, I. S. (2016). Is there an economical running technique? A review of modifiable factors affecting running economy. Sports Medicine , 46 , 793–807. doi:10.1007/s40279-016-0474-4
  • Moresi, M. P. , Bradshaw, E. J. , Greene, D. A. , & Naughton, G. A. (2015). The impact of data reduction on the intra-trial reliability of a typical measure of lower limb musculoskeletal stiffness. Journal of Sports Sciences , 33 , 180–191. doi:10.1080/02640414.2014.932916
  • Morin, J. B. , Dalleau, G. , Kyröläinen, H. , Jeannin, T. , & Belli, A. (2005). A simple method for measuring stiffness during running. Journal of Applied Biomechanics , 21 , 167–180. doi:10.1123/jab.21.2.167
  • Morin, J. B. , Jeannin, T. , Chevallier, B. , & Belli, A. (2006). Spring-mass model characteristics during sprint running: Correlation with performance and fatigue-induced changes. International Journal of Sports Medicine , 27 , 158–165. doi:10.1055/s-2005-837569
  • Nagahara, R. , & Zushi, K. (2017). Development of maximal speed sprinting performance with changes in vertical, leg and joint stiffness. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness , 57 , 1572–1578. doi:10.23736/S0022-4707.16.06622-6
  • Oliver, J. L. , & Smith, P. M. (2010). Neural control of leg stiffness during hopping in boys and men. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology , 20 , 973–979. doi:10.1016/j.jelekin.2010.03.011
  • Padua, D. A. , Arnold, B. L. , Carcia, C. R. , & Granata, K. P. (2005). Gender differences in leg stiffness and stiffness recruitment strategy during two-legged hopping. Journal of Motor Behaviour , 37 , 111–126. doi:10.3200/JMBR.37.2.111-126
  • Pappas, P. , Dallas, G. , & Paradisis, G. (2017). Reliability of leg and vertical stiffness during high speed treadmill running. Journal of Applied Biomechanics , 33 , 160–165. doi:10.1123/jab.2016-0045
  • Pappas, P. , Paradisis, G. , Tsolakis, C. , Smirniotou, A. , & Morin, J. B. (2014). Reliabilities of leg and vertical stiffness during treadmill running. Sports Biomechanics , 13 , 391–399. doi:10.1080/14763141.2014.981853
  • Pearson, S. J. , & McMahon, J. (2012). Lower limb mechanical properties: Determining factors and implications for performance. Sports Medicine , 42 , 929–940. doi:10.1007/BF03262304
  • Pruyn, E. C. , Watsford, M. , & Murphy, A. (2014). The relationship between lower-body stiffness and dynamic performance. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism , 39 , 1144–1150. doi:10.1139/apnm-2014-0063
  • Pruyn, E. C. , Watsford, M. L. , & Murphy, A. J. (2015). Differences in lower-body stiffness between levels of netball competition. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research , 29 , 1197–1202. doi:10.1519/JSC.0000000000000418
  • Pruyn, E. C. , Watsford, M. L. , & Murphy, A. J. (2016). Validity and reliability of three methods of stiffness assessment. Journal of Sport and Health Science , 5 , 476–483. doi:10.1016/j.jshs.2015.12.001
  • Pruyn, E. C. , Watsford, M. L. , Murphy, A. J. , Pine, M. J. , Spurrs, R. W. , Cameron, M. L. , & Johnston, R. J. (2013). Seasonal variation of leg stiffness in professional Australian rules footballers. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research , 27 , 1775–1779. doi:10.1519/JSC.0b013e318273690f
  • Rabita, G. , Couturier, A. , Dorel, S. , Hausswirth, C. , & Le Meur, Y. (2013). Changes in spring-mass behavior and muscle activity during an exhaustive run at VO2max . Journal of Biomechanics , 46 , 2011–2017. doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2013.06.011
  • Rabita, G. , Slawinski, J. , Girard, O. , Bignet, F. , & Hausswirth, C. (2011). Spring-mass behavior during exhaustive run at constant velocity in elite triathletes. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise , 43 , 685–692. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181fb3793
  • Serpell, B. G. , Ball, N. B. , Scarvell, J. M. , Buttfield, A. , & Smith, P. N. (2014). Muscle pre-activation strategies play a role in modulating K vert for change of direction manoeuvres: An observational study. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology , 24 , 704–710. doi:10.1016/j.jelekin.2014.06.008
  • Serpell, B. G. , Ball, N. B. , Scarvell, J. M. , & Smith, P. N. (2012). A review of models of vertical, leg, and knee stiffness in adults for running, jumping or hopping tasks. Journal of Sports Sciences , 30 , 1347–1363. doi:10.1080/02640414.2012.710755
  • Serpell, B. G. , Scarvell, J. M. , Pickering, M. R. , Ball, N. B. , Perriman, D. , Warmenhoven, J. , & Smith, P. N. (2016). Vertical stiffness is not related to anterior cruciate ligament elongation in professional rugby union players. BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine , 2 , e000150. doi:10.1136/bmjsem-2016-000150
  • Seyfarth, A. , Blickhan, R. , & Van Leeuwen, J. L. (2000). Optimum take-off techniques and muscle design for long jump. Journal of Experimental Biology , 203 , 741–750.
  • Stefanyshyn, D. J. , & Nigg, B. M. (1998). Dynamic angular stiffness of the ankle joint during running and sprinting. Journal of Applied Biomechanics , 14 , 292–299. doi:10.1123/jab.14.3.292
  • Taylor, M. J. D. , & Beneke, R. (2012). Spring mass characteristics of the fastest men on earth. International Journal of Sports Medicine , 33 , 667–670. doi:10.1055/s-0032-1306283
  • Witmer, C. A. , Davis, S. E. , & Moir, G. L. (2010). The acute effects of back squats on vertical jump performance in men and women. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine , 9 , 206–213.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.