Coronary no-reflow in the modern era: a review of advances in diagnostic techniques and contemporary management

References

• Roth GA, Johnson C, Abajobir A, et al. Global scourge of cardiovascular disease. Journal Of The American College Of Cardiology. 2017;70(1):26-28. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2017.05.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox KA, Steg PG, Eagle KA, et al. Decline in rates of death and heart failure in acute coronary syndromes, 1999–2006. JAMA. 2007;297:1892–1900.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ibanez B, James S, Agewall S, et al. 2017 ESC Guidelines for the management of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with ST-segment elevation. Eur Heart J. 2018 January 7;39(2):119–177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krug A, de Rochemont WM, Korb G. Blood supply of the myocardium after temporary coronary occlusion. Circ Res. 1996;19:57–62.
   Google Scholar
• Kloner RA, Ganote CE, Jennings RB. The ‘no-reflow’ phenomenon after temporary coronary occlusion in the dog. J Clin Invest. 1974;54:1496–1508.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schofer J, Montz R, Mathey D. Scintigraphic evidence of the ‘no-reflow’ phenomenon in human beings after coronary thrombolysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1985;5:593–598.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bates ER, Krell MJ, Dean EN, et al. Demonstration of ‘no reflow’ phenomenon by digital coronary arteriography. Am J Cardiol. 1986;57:177–178.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feld H, Lichstien E, Schachter J, et al. Early and late angiographic findings of the ‘no-reflow’ phenomenon following direct angioplasty as the primary treatment for acute myocardial infarction. Am Heart J. 1992;123:782–784.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abbo KM, Dooris M, Glazier S, et al. Features and outcome of no-reflow after percutaneous coronary intervention. Am J Cardiol. 1995;75:778–782.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morishima I, Sone T, Okumura K, et al. Angiographic no-reflow phenomenon as a predictor of adverse long-term outcome in patients treated with percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty for first acute myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;36(4):1202–1209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrison RW, Aggarwal A, Ou FS, et al. American College of Cardiology National Cardiovascular Data Registry. Incidence and outcomes of no-reflow phenomenon during percutaneous coronary intervention among patients with acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol. 2013;111(2):178–184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piana RN, Paik GY, Moscucci M, et al. Incidence and treatment of ‘no-reflow’ after percutaneous coronary intervention. Circulation. 1994;89:2514–2518.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niccoli G, Burzotta F, Galiuto L, et al. Myocardial No-Reflow in Humans. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009 Jul 21;54(4):281–292. .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Farrell FM, Mastitskaya S, Hammond-Haley M, et al. Capillarypericytes mediate coronary no-reflow after myocardial ischaemia. eLife. 2017;6. pii: e29280. doi: 10.7554/eLife.29280.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Claussen PA, Abdelnoor M, Kvakkestad KM, et al. Prevalence of risk factors at presentation and early mortality in patients aged 80 years or older with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2014;10:683–689.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Heusch G, Kleinbongard P, Böse D, et al. Coronary microembolization from bedside to bench and back to bedside. Circulation. 2009;120:1822–1836. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.888784.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mauri L, Rogers C, Baim DS. Devices for distal protection during percutaneous coronary revascularization. Circulation. 2006;113:2651–2656.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okamura A, Ito H, Iwakura K, et al. Detection of embolic particles with the Doppler guide wire during coronary intervention in patients with acute myocardial infarction: efficacy of distal protection device. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45(2):212–215.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soeda T, Higuma T, Abe N, et al. Morphological predictors for no reflow phenomenon after primary percutaneous coronary intervention in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction caused by plaque rupture. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2017 Jan;18(1):103–110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu KC, Zerhouni EA, Judd RM, et al. Prognostic significance of microvascular obstruction magnetic resonance imaging in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1998;97:765–772.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshino S, Ciluffo R, Best PJ, et al. A single nucleotide polymorphism associated with abnormal coronary micro-vascular function. Coron Artery Dis. 2014;25:281–289.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iwakura K, Ito H, Ikushima M, et al. Association between hyperglycemia and the no-reflow phenomenon in patients with acute myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41:1–7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li XD, Yang YJ, Hao YC, et al. Effects of pre-procedural statin therapy on myocardial no-reflow following percutaneous coronary intervention: a meta-analysis. Chin Med J (Engl). 2013;126:1755–1760.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santoro GM, Valenti R, Buonamici P, et al. Relation between ST-segment changes and myocardial perfusion evaluated by myocardial contrast echocardiography in patients with acute myocardial infarction treated by direct angioplasty. Am J Cardiol. 1998;82:932–937.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wehrens XH, Doevendans PA, Ophuis TJ, et al. A comparison of electrocardiographic changes during reperfusion of acute myocardial infarction by thrombolysis or percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty. Am Heart J. 2000;139:430–436.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zabel M, Hohnloser SH, Köster W, et al. Analysis of creatine kinase, CK-MB, myoglobin, and troponin T time-activity curves for early assessment of coronary artery reperfusion after intravenous thrombolysis. Circulation. 1993;87:1542–1550.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonz AW, Lengenfelder B, Strotmann J, et al. Effect of additional temporary glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor inhibition on troponin release in elective percutaneous coronary interventions after pretreatment with aspirin and clopidogrel (TOPSTAR trial). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;40(4):662–668.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lepper W, Belcik T, Wei K, et al. Myocardial contrast echocardiograpy. Circulation. 2004;109:3132–3135.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Galiuto L, Garramone B, Scara A, et al. The extent of microvascular damage during myocardial contrast echocardiography is superior to other known indexes of post infarction reperfusion in predicting left ventricular remodelling: result of the multicentre AMICI study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;51:552–559.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iliceto S, Galiuto L, Marchese A, et al. Functional role of microvascular integrity in patients with infarct-related artery patency after acute myocardial infarction. Eur Heart J. 1997;18:618–624.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rochitte CE, Lima JAC, Bluemke DA, et al. Magnitude and time course of microvascular obstruction and tissue injury after myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1998;98:1006–1014.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor AJ, Al-Saadi N, Abdel-Aty H, et al. Detection of acutely impaired microvascular reperfusion after infarct angioplasty with magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation. 2004;109:2080–2085.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammer-Hansen S, Leung SW, Hsu LY, et al. Early gadolinium enhancement for area at risk determination: a preclinical validation study. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2017 Feb;10(2):130–139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wu KC, Zerhouni EA, Judd RM, et al. Prognostic significance of microvascular obstruction by magnetic resonance imaging in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1998;97:765–772.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nijveldt R, Beek AM, Hirsch A, et al. Functional recovery after acute myocardial infarction: comparison between angiography, electrocardiography, and cardiovascular magnetic resonance measures of microvascular injury. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;52:181–189.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henriques JPS, Zijlistra F, Van’t Hof AWJ, et al. Angiographic assessment of reperfusion in acute myocardial infarction by myocardial blush grade. Circulation. 2003;107:2115–2119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morishima I, Sone T, Okumura K, et al. Angiographic no-reflow phenomenon as a predictor of adverse long-term outcome in patients treated with percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty for first acute myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000;36:1202–1209.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamada S, Nishiue T, Nakamura S, et al. TIMI frame count immediately after primary coronary angioplasty as a predictor of functional recovery in patients with TIMI 3 reperfused acute myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;38:666–671.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibson CM, Cannon CP, Daley WL, et al. TIMI frame count: a quantitative method of assessing coronary artery flow. Circulation. 1996;93:879–888.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibson CM, Cannon CP, Murphy SA, et al. Relationship of TIMI myocardial perfusion grades, flow grades, frame count and percutaneous coronary intervention to long-term outcomes after thrombolytic administration in acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2002;105:1909–1913.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomasik A, Młyńczak T, Nowak E, et al. Quantitative myocardial blush score (QuBE) allows the prediction of heart failure development in long-term follow-up in patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction: proof of concept study. Cardiol J. 2017 Nov13; doi:10.5603/CJ.a2017.0129
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kadermuneer P, Vinod GV, Haridasan V, et al. Prognostic significance of coronary sinus filling time in patients with angina and normal coronaries at one year follow up. Indian Heart J. 2015 May-Jun;67(3):245–249.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Iwakura K, Ito H, Takiuchi S, et al. Alteration in the coronary blood flow velocity pattern in patients with no reflow and reperfused acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1996;94:1269–1275.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iwakura K, Ito H, Nishikawa N, et al. Early temporal changes in coronary flow velocity patterns in patients with acute myocardial infarction demonstrating the no-reflow phenomenon. Am J Cardiol. 1999;84:415–419.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Yamamoto K, Ito H, Iwakura K, et al. Two different coronary blood flow velocity patterns in thrombolysis in myocardial infarction flow grade 2 in acute myocardial infarction: Insight into mechanisms of microvascular dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;40:1755–1760.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams RP, De Waard GA, De Silva K, et al. Doppler versus thermodilution-derived coronary microvascular resistance to predict coronary microvascular dysfunction in patients with acute myocardial infarction or stable angina pectoris. Am J Cardiol. 2018 Jan 1;121(1):1–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Mario C, De Feyter PJ, Slager CJ, et al. Intracoronary blood flow velocity and trans stenotic pressure gradient using sensor-tip pressure and Doppler guidewires: a new technology for the assessment of stenosis severity in the catheterization laboratory. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn. 1993;28:311–319.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Patel N, Petraco R, Dall’Armellina E, et al. Zero-flow pressure measured immediately after primary percutaneous coronary intervention for ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction provides the best invasive index for predicting the extent of myocardial infarction at 6 months: an OxAMI study (oxford acute myocardial infarction). JACC Cardiovasc Interv. 2015 Sep;8(11):1410–1421.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fearon WF, Low AF, Yong AS, et al. Prognostic value of the index of microcirculatory resistance measured after primary percutaneous coronary intervention. Circulation. 2013 Jun 18;127(24):2436–2441.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherman JR, Anwar A, Bret JR, et al. Distal vessel pullback angiography and pressure gradient measurements: An innovative diagnostic approach to evaluate the no-reflow phenomenon. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn. 1996;39:1–6.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mazhar J, Mashicharan M, Farshid A. Predictors and outcome of no-reflow post primary percutaneous coronary intervention for ST elevation myocardial infarction. International journal of cardiology. Heart Vasculature. 2015;10:8–12.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soeda T, Higuma T, Abe N, et al. Morphological predictors for no-reflow phenomenon after primary percutaneous coronary intervention in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction caused by plaque rupture. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2017 Jan;18(1):103–110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang JW, Zhoud ZQ, Chen YD, et al. A risk score for no reflow in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction after percutaneous coronary intervention. Clin Cardiol. 2015;38(4):208–215.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Abdi S, Rafizadeh O, Peighambari M, et al. Evaluation of the clinical and procedural predictive factors of no-reflow phenomenon following primary percutaneous coronary intervention. Res Cardiovasc Med. 4(2):e25414.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhou H, He XY, Zhuang SW, et al. Clinical and procedural predictors of no-reflow in patients with acute myocardial infarction after primary percutaneous coronary intervention. World J Emerg Med. 2014;5(2):96–102.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Johnson-Cox HA, Yang D, Ravid K. Physiological implications of adenosine receptor-mediated platelet aggregation. J Cell Physiol. 2011;226:46–51.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marzilli M, Orsini E, Marraccini P, et al. Beneficial effects of intracoronary adenosine as an adjunct to primary angioplasty in acute myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2000;101(18):2154–2159.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahaffey KW, Puma JA, Barbagelata NA, et al. Adenosine as an adjunct to thrombolytic therapy for acute myocardial infarction: re-sults of a multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled trial: the acute myocardial infarction STudy of ADenosine (AMISTAD)trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999;34:1711–1720.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross AM, Gibbons RJ, Stone GW, et al. AMISTAD-II Investigators. A randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled multicenter trial of adenosine as an adjunct toreperfusion in the treatment of acute myocardial infarction(AMISTAD-II). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45:1775–1780.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niccoli G, Rigattieri S, De Vita MR, et al. Open-label, randomized, placebo-controlled evaluation of intracoronary adenosine or nitroprusside after thrombus aspiration during primary percutaneous coronary intervention for the intervention of microvascular obstruction in acute myocardial infarction: the REOPEN-AMI study (intracoronary nitroprusside versus adenosine in acute myocardial infarction). J Am Coll Cardiol Intv. 2013;6:580–589.
   Google Scholar
• Gao Q, Yang B, Guo Y, et al. Efficacy of adenosine in patients with acute myocardial infarction undergoing primary percutaneous coronary intervention: A PRISMA-compliant meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore). 94(32):e1279.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nazir SA, Khan JN, Mahmoud IZ, et al. The REFLO-STEMI trial comparing intracoronary adenosine, sodium nitroprusside and standard therapy for the attenuation of infarct size and microvascular obstruction during primary percutaneous coronary intervention: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Trials. 2014;15:371. Published 2014 Sep 25.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vijayalakshmi K, Whittaker VJ, Kunadian B, et al. Prospective, randomised, controlled trial to study the effect of intracoronary injection of verapamil and adenosine on coronary blood flow during percutaneous coronary intervention in patients with acute coronary syndromes. Heart. 2006;92(9):1278–1284.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Werner GS, Lang K, Kuehnert H, et al. Intracoronary verapamil for reversal of no-reflow during coronary angioplasty for acute myocardial infarction. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2002;57:444–451.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang D, Qian I, Ge L, et al. Restoration of coronary flow in patients with no reflow after primary coronary intervention of acute myocardial infarction (RECOVER AMI). Am Heart J. 2012;164:394–401.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakaya H, Kanno M. Effects of nicardipine, a new dihydropyridine vasodilator, on coronary circulation and ischemia-induced conduction delay in dogs. Arzneimittel-Forschung. 1982;32(6):626–629.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang RI, Patel P, Walinsky P, et al. Efficacy of intracoronary nicardipine in the treatment of no-reflow during percutaneous coronary intervention. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2006;68:671–676.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fischell TA, Subraya RG, Ashraf K, et al. “Pharmacologic” distal protection using prophylactic, intragraft nicardipine to prevent no-reflow and non-Q was MI during SVG interventions. J Invasive Cardiol. 2007;19:58–62.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fischell TA, Haller S, Pulukurthy S, et al. Nicardipine and adenosine “flush cocktail” to prevent no-reflow during rotational atherectomy. Cardiovasc Revasc Med. 2008;9:224–228.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ellis SG, Popma JJ, Buchbinder M, et al. Relation of clinical presentation, stenosis morphology, and operator technique to the procedural results of rotational atherectomy and rotational atherectomy-facilitated angioplasty. Circulation. 1994;89:882–892.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friederich JA, Butterworth JF. Sodium nitroprusside: twentyyears and counting. Anesth Analg. 1995 July 4th;81(1):152–162.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, C. C. Mechanism of Actions and Toxicity of Nitroprusside. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 1928;26(2):102–103. https://doi.org/10.3181/00379727-26-4160.
   Google Scholar
• Zhao YJ, Fu XH, Ma XX, et al. Intracoronary fixed dose of nitroprusside via thrombus aspiration catheter for the prevention of the no-reflow phenomenon following primary percutaneous coronary intervention in acute myocardial infarction. Exp Ther Med. 2013;6(2):479–484.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amit G, Cafri C, Yaroslavtsev S, et al. Intracoronary nitroprusside for the prevention of the no-reflow phenomenon after primary percutaneous coronary intervention in acute myocardial infarction. Am Heart J. 2006;152:887e9–14.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao S, Qi G, Tian W, et al. Effect of intracoronary nitroprusside in preventing no reflow phenomenon during primary percutaneous coronary intervention: a meta-analysis. J Interv Cardiol. 2014;27(4):356–364.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parikh KH, Chag MC, Shah KJ, et al. Intracoronary boluses of adenosine and sodium nitroprusside in combination reverses slow/no-reflow during angioplasty: a clinical scenario of ischemic preconditioning. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 2007;85:476–482.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nakae I, Matsumoto T, Horie H, et al. “Effects of intravenous nicorandil on coronary circulation in humans: plasma concentration and action mechanism”. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 35(6):919–925.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ishii H, Ichimiya S, Kanashior M, et al. Impact of single intravenous administration of nicorandil before reperfusion in patients with ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2005;112:1284–1288.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ono H, Osanai T, Ishizaka H, et al. Nicorandil improves cardiac function and clinical outcome in patients with acute myocardial infarction undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: role of inhibitory effect on reactive oxygen species formation. Am Heart J. 2004;148:E15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Connor CT, Kiernan TJ, Yan BP. The genetic basis of antiplatelet and anticoagulant therapy: A pharmacogenetic review of newer antiplatelets (clopidogrel, prasugrel and ticagrelor) and anticoagulants (dabigatran, rivaroxaban, apixaban and edoxaban). Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2017 June;13(7). DOI:10.1080/17425255.2017.1338274
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thiele H, Scindler K, Friedenberger J, et al. compared with intravenous bolus abciximab application in patient with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction undergoing primary percutaneous coronary intervention: the randomized Leipzig immediate percutaneous coronary intervention abciximab IV versus IC in ST-segment myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2008;118:49–57.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thiele H, Wohrle J, Hambrecht R, et al. Intracoronary versus intravenous bolus abciximab during primary percutaneous coronary intervention in patients with acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction: a randomized trial. Lancet. 2012;379(9819):923–931.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neumann FJ, Sousa-Uva M, Ahlsson A, et al. ESC/EACTS guidelines on myocardial revascularization. European Heart J. 2019 January 7;40(2):87–165. 2018.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibson CM, Morrow DA, Murphy SA, et al. A randomized trial to evaluate the relative protection against post-percutaneous coronary intervention microvascular dysfunction, ischemia, and inflammation among antiplatelet and antithrombotic agents: the PROTECT-TIMI-30 trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;47:2364–2373.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van’t Hoff AW, Ten Berg J, Heestermans T, et al. Prehospital initiation of tirofiban in patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction undergoing primary angioplasty (On-TIME 2): a multicentre, double-blind, randomized controlled trial Lancet. 2008;373:537–546.
   Google Scholar
• Prati F, Romagnoli E, Limbruno U, et al. Randomized evaluation of intralesion versus intracoronary abciximab and aspiration thrombectomy in patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction: The COCTAIL II trial. Am Heart J. 2015 Dec;170(6):1116–1123.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lieberman M, Marks A, Peet A. Mark’s basic medical biochemistry: a clinical approach. 4th. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2013. p. 175. ISBN 9781608315727.
   Google Scholar
• “(-)-adrenaline”. Guide to pharmacology. IUPS/BPS. Retrieved 2015 Aug 21.
   Google Scholar
• Shen H. Illustrated pharmacology memory cards: pharMnemonics. Minireview; 2008. p. 4. ISBN 1-59541-101-1.
   Google Scholar
• Aksu T, Guler TE, Colak A, et al. Intracoronary epinephrine in the treatment of refractory no-reflow after primary percutaneous coronary intervention: a retrospective study. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2015;15:10. Published 2015 Feb 19.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bairey Merz N, Handberg EM, Shufelt CL, et al. A randomized, placebo controlled trial of late current inhibition (Ranolazine) in coronary microvascular dysfunction: impact on Angina and myocardial perfusion reserve. Eur Heart J. 2016;37(19):1504-1513. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehv647.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capes SE, Hunt D, Malmberg K, et al. Stress hyperglycemia and increased risk after myocardial infarction in patients without diabetes: A systematic overview. Lancet. 2000;355:773–778.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wahab NN, Cowden EA, Pearce NJ, et al. on behalf of the ICONS investigators. Is blood glucose an independent predictor of mortality in acute myocardial infarction in the thrombolytic era? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;40:1748–1754.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stranders I, Diamant M, van Gelder RE, et al. Admission blood glucose level as risk indicator of death after myocardial infarction in patients with and without diabetes mellitus. Arch Intern Med. 2004;164:982–988.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosiborod M, Rathore SS, Inzucchi SE, et al. Admission glucose and mortality in elderly patients hospitalized with acute myocardial infarction: Implications for patients with and without recognized diabetes. Circulation. 2005;111:3078–3086.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Undas A, Wiek I, Stêpien E, et al. Hyperglycemia is associated with enhanced thrombin formation, platelet activation, and fibrin clot resistance to lysis in patients with acute coronary syndrome. Diabetes Care. 2008;31:1590–1595.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park JY, Takahara N, Gabriele A, et al. Induction of endothelin-1 expression by glucose: an effect of protein kinase C activation. Diabetes. 2000;49:1239–1248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eitel I, Nowak M, Stehl C, et al. Endothelin-1 release in acute myocardial infarction as a predictor of long-term prognosis and no-reflow assessed by contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. Am Heart J. 2010 May;159(5):882–890.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dokken BB, La BLR, Davis-Gorman G, et al. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), immediately prior to reperfusion, decreases neutrophil activation and reduces myocardial infarct size in rodents. Horm Metab Res. 2011;43:300–305.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marso SP, Daniels GH, Brown-Frandsen K, et al. LEADER Steering Committee; LEADER Trial Investigators. Liraglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2016 Jul 28;375(4):311–322. Epub 2016 Jun13.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kristensen J, Mortensen UM, Schmidt M, et al. Lack of cardioprotection from subcutaneously and preischemic administered liraglutide in a closed chest porcine ischemia reperfusion model. BMC Cardiovasc Disord. 2009;9:31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lønborg J, Vejlstrup N, Kelbæk H, et al. Exenatide reduces reperfusion injury in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. Eur Heart J. 2012;33:1491–1499.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen WR, Chen YD, Tian F, et al. Effects of liraglutide on reperfusion injury in patients with ST-segment–elevation myocardial infarction. Cir Cardiovasc Imaging. 2016;9. DOI:10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.116.005146.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morikawa S, Takabe W, Mataki C, et al. The effect of statins on mRNA levels of genes related to inflammation, coagulation, and vascular constriction in HUVEC. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells. J Atheroscler Thromb. 2002;9:178–183.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zhao J-L, Yang Y-J, Cui C-J, et al. Pretreatment with simvastatin reduced myocardial no-reflow by opening mitochondrial KATP channel. Br J Pharmacol. 2006;149:243–249.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pasceri V, Patti G, Nusca A, et al. Randomized trial of atorvastatin for reduction of myocardial damage during coronary intervention: results from the ARMYDA (atorvastatin for reduction of MYocardial damage during angioplasty) study. Circulation. 2004;110:674–678.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Celik T, Kursaklioglu H, Lyisoy A, et al. The effects of prior use of atorvastatin on coronary blood flow after primary percutaneous coronary intervention in patients presenting with acute myocardial infarction. Coron Artery Dis. 2005;16:321–326.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Patti G, Pasceri V, Colonna G, et al. Atorvastatin pretreatment improves outcomes in patients with acute coronary syndromes undergoing early percutaneous coronary intervention: results of the ARMYDA-ACS randomized trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49:1272–1278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Sciascio G, Patti G, Pasceri V, et al. Efficacy of atorvastatin reload in patients on chronic statin therapy undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: results of the ARMYDA-RECAPTURE (atorvastatin for reduction of myocardial damage during angioplasty) randomized trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54:558–565.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu W, Zou Z, Jiang H, et al. Clinical effect of preoperative high-dose atorvastatin against no-reflow after PCI. Exp Ther Med. 2017;13(1):97–102.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burzotta F, Trani C, Ramagnoli E, et al. Manual thrombus aspiration improves myocardial reperfusion: the randomized evaluation of the effect of mechanical reduction of distal embolization by thrombus aspiration in primary and rescue angioplasty (REMEDIA) trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;46:371–376.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dudek D, Mielecki W, Burzotta F, et al. Thrombus aspiration followed by direct stenting: a novel strategy of primary percutaneous coronary intervention in ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. Results of the polish–Italian–Hungarian-Randomized ThrombEctomy (PIHRATE trial). Am Heart J. 2010;160(5):966–972.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Svilaas T, Vlaar PJ, Van der Horst IC, et al. Thrombus aspiration during primary percutaneous coronary intervention. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:557–567.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vlaar PJ, Svilass T, Van der Horst IC, et al. Cardiac death and reinfarction after 1 year in there thrombus aspiration during percutaneous coronary intervention in acute myocardial infarction study (TAPAS): a 1 year follow-up study. Lancet. 2008;371(9628):1915–1920.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Vita M, Burzotta F, Biondi-Zoccai GG, et al. Individual patient-date meta-analysis comparing clinical outcome in patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction treated with percutaneous coronary intervention with or without prior thrombectomy. ATTEMPT study: a pooled analysis of trials on ThrombEctomy in acute myocardial infarction based on individual patienT data. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2009;5:243–247
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Frobert O, Lagerqvist B, Olivercrona GK, et al. Thrombus aspiration during ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:1587–1597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lagerqvist B, Fröbert O, Olivecrona GK, et al. Outcomes 1 year after thrombus aspiration for myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2014;371:1111–1120.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jolly SS, Carins JA, Yusuf S, et al. Randomized trial of primary PCI with or without routine manual thrombectomy. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(15):1389–1398.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Migliorini A, Stabile A, Rodriguez AE, et al. Comparison of AngioJet rheolytic thrombectomy before direct infarct artery stenting with direct stenting alone in patients with acute myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56(16):1298–1306.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lefèvre T, Garcia E, Reimers B, et al. X-sizer for thrombectomy in acute myocardial infarction improves st-segment resolution: results of the x-sizer in ami for negligible embolization and optimal st resolution (x amine st) trial. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2005.04.031
   Google Scholar
• Mancini JG, Filion KB, Windle SB, et al. Meta-analysis of the long-term effect of routine aspiration thrombectomy in patients undergoing primary percutaneous coronary intervention. Am J Cardiol. 2016;118:23–31.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahmoud KD, Jolly SS, James S, et al. Clinical impact of direct stenting and interaction with thrombus aspiration in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: thrombectomy trialists collaboration. Eur Heart J. 2018 July 7;39(26):2472–2479.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freixa X, Belle L, Joseph L, et al. Immediate vs delayed stenting in acute myocardial infarction: a systemic review and meta-analysis. EuroIntervention. 2013;8:1207–1216.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carrick D, Oldroyd KG, McEntegart M, et al. A randomized trial of deferred stenting versus immediate stenting to prevent no or slow-flow in acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (DEFER-STEMI). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;63:2088–2098.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lønborg J, Engstrøm T, Ahtarovski KA, et al. Myocardial damage in patients with deferred stenting after STEMI: a DANAMI-3–DEFER substudy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;69:2794–2804.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kelbæk H, Høfsten DE, Køber L, et al. Deferred versus conventional stent implantation in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (DANAMI 3-DEFER): an open-label, randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2016;387:2199–2206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grube E, Schofer JJ, Webb J, et al. Evaluation of a balloon occlusion and aspiration system for protection from distal embolization during stenting in saphenous vein grafts. Am J Cardiol. 2002;89:941–945.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grube E, Gerckens U, Yeung AC, et al. Prevention of distal embolisation during coronary angioplasty in saphenous vein grafts and native vessels using porous filter protection. Circulation. 2001;104:2436–2441.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baim DS, Wahr D, George B, et al. Saphenous vein graft angioplasty free of emboli randomized (SAFER) trial investigators randomized trial of a distal embolic protection device during percutaneous intervention of saphenous vein aorto-coronary bypass grafts. Circulation. 2002;105:1285–1290.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelbaek H, Terkelsen CJ, Helqvist S, et al. Randomized comparison of distal protection versus conventional treatment in primary percutaneous coronary intervention: the drug elution and distal protection in STelevation myocardial infarction (DEDICATION) trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;51:899–905.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stone GW, Webb J, Cox DA, et al. Distal microcirculatory protection during percutaneous coronary intervention in acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2005;293:1063–1072.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gick M, Jander N, Bestehorn HP, et al. Randomized evaluation of the effects of filter-based distal protection on myocardial perfusion and infarct size after primary percutaneous catheter intervention in myocardial infarction with and without ST-segment elevation. Circulation. 2005;112:1462–1469.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine GN, Bates ER, Blankenship JC, et al. 2011ACCF/AHA/SCAI guideline for percutaneous coronary intervention a report of the American college of cardiology foundation/american heart association task force on practice guidelines and the society for cardiovascular angiography and interventions. Circulation. 2011;124:e574–e651.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ikenaga H, Ishihara M, Inoue I, et al. Longitudinal extent of lipid pool assessed by optical coherence tomography predicts microvascular no-reflow after primary percutaneous coronary intervention for ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. J Cardiol. 2013;62:71–76.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sievert H, Wahr DW, Schuler G, et al. Effectiveness and safety of the Proxis system in demonstrating retrograde coronary blood flow during proximal occlusion and in capturing embolic material. Am J Cardiol. 2004;94:1134–1139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang JC, Normand SL, Mauri L, et al. Coronary artery spatial distribution of acute myocardial infarction occlusions. Circulation. 2004;110:278–284.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mauri L, Cox D, Hermiller J, et al. The PROXIMAL trial: proximal protection during saphenous vein graft intervention using the Proxis embolic protection system: a randomized, prospective multicenter clinical trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007 Oct 9;50(15):1442–1449. Epub 2007 Sep 24.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dudek D, Dziewierz A, Rzeszutko L, et al. Mesh covered stent in ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. EuroIntervention. 2010;6(5):582–589.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piscione F, Danzi GB, Cassese S, et al. Multicentre experience with MGuard net protective stent in ST-elevation myocardial infarction: safety, feasibility and impact on myocardial infarction. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2010;75(5):715–721.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stone GW, Abizaid A, Silber S, et al. Prospective, randomized, multicentre evaluation of a polyethylene terephthalat micronet mesh-covered stent (MGuard) in ST-segment myocardial infarction (The MASTER trial). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60(19):1975–1984.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gracida M, Ramaguera R, Jacobi F, et al. The MGuard coronary stent: safety, efficacy and clinical utility. Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2015;11:533–539.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernandez-Cisnal A, Cid-Alvarez B, Alvarez-Alvarez B, et al. Real world comparison of the MGuard stent versus the bare metal stent for ST elevation myocardial infarction (the REWARD-MI study). Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 2015;85(1):E1–E9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Costa RA, Abizaid A, Lotan C, et al. Impact of thrombus burden on outcomes after standard versus mesh-covered stents in acute myocardial infarction (from the MGuard for acute ST elevation reperfusion trial). Am J Cardiol. 2015;115(2):161–166.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murry CE, Jennings RB, Reimer KA, “Preconditioning with ischemia: a delay of lethal cell injury in ischemic myocardium”. Circulation. 74(5):1124–1136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Das M, Das DK. “Molecular mechanism of preconditioning”. IUBMB Life. 2008 March 31;60(4):199–203.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Staat P, Rioufol G, Piot C, et al. Postconditioning the human heart. Circulation. 2005;112(14):2143–2148.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Limalanathan S, Andersen GØ, Kløw NE, et al. Effect of ischemic postconditioning on infarct size in patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction treated by primary PCI results of the POSTEMI (POstconditioning in ST-elevation myocardial infarction) randomized trial. J Am Heart Assoc. 2014;3(2):e000679.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sörensson P, Saleh N, Bouvier F, et al. Effect of postconditioning on infarct size in patients with ST elevation myocardial infarction. Heart. 2010;96(21):1710–1715.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarantini G, Favaretto E, Marra MP, et al. Postconditioning during coronary angioplasty in acute myocardial infarction: the POST-AMI trial. Int J Cardiol. 2012;162(1):33–38.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabbah HN, Mengjun W, Zhang K, et al. Long-term therapy with Bendavia (MTP-131), a novel mitochondria- targatting peptide, increases myocardial ATP synthesis and improves left ventricular systolic function in dogs with chronic heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;61:10S.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chakrabarti AK, Feeney K, Abueg C, et al. Rationale and design of the EMBRACE STEMI study: a phase 2a, randomized, of intravenous Bendavia on reperfusion injury in patients treated with standard therapy including primary percutaneous coronary intervention and stenting for ST-segment elevation.
   Google Scholar
• Gibson CM, Giugliano RP, Kloner RA, et al. The EMBRACE STEMI Study: A Phase 2a, Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo- Controlled Trial to Evaluate the Safety, Tolerability and Efficacy of Intravenous Bendavia! on Reperfusion Injury in Patients Treated with Standard Therapy Including Primary PCI and Stenting for ST-segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction (EMBRACE STEMI) Late- Breaking Clinical Trials V: TCT@ACC- i2 Interventional Cardiology. Presented at American College of Cardiology Scientific Sessions; 14-16 March 2015; San Diego
   Google Scholar
• O’Connor CT, Kiernan TJ, Yan BP. Investigational new drugs for the treatment of acute coronary syndrome. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2015. DOI:10.1517/13543784.2015.1094459
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kloner RA, Hale SL, Dai W, et al. Reduction of ischemia/reperfusion injury with bendavia, a mitochondria‐targeting cytoprotective peptide. J Am Heart Assoc. 2012;1. DOI:10.1161/JAHA.112.001644.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Senyo SE, Steinhauser ML, Pizzimenti CL, et al. Mammalian heart renewal by pre-existing cardiomyocytes. Nature. 2013 Jan 17;493(7432):433–436.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin Z, Zhou P, Von Gise A, et al. Pi3kcb links Hippo-YAP and PI3K-AKT signaling pathways to promote cardiomyocyte proliferation and survival. Circ Res. 2015 Jan 2;116(1):35–45.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wollert KC, Meyer GP, Lotz J, et al. Intracoronary autologous bone-marrow cell transfer after myocardial infarction: the BOOST randomised controlled clinical trial. Lancet. 2004 Jul 10–16;364(9429):141–148.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janssens S, Dubois C, Bogaert J, et al. Autologous bone marrow-derived stem cell transfer in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction: double blind,randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2006 Jan 14;367(9505):113–121.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dill T, Schächinger V, Rolf A, et al. Intracoronary administration of bone marrow-derived progenitor cells improves left ventricular function in patients at risk for adverse remodeling after acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction: results of the reinfusion of enriched progenitor cells and infarct remodeling in acute myocardial infarction study (REPAIR-AMI) cardiac magnetic resonance imaging substudy. Am Heart J. 2009 Mar;157(3):541–547.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mathur A, Arnold R, Assmus B, et al. The effect of intracoronary infusion of bone marrow-derived mononuclear cells on all-cause mortality in acute myocardial infarction: rationale and design of the BAMI trial. Eur J Heart Fail. 2017 Nov;19(11):1545–1550. Epub 2017Sep 25.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar