252
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Achieving coronary plaque regression: a decades-long battle against coronary artery disease

& ORCID Icon
Pages 291-305 | Received 15 Nov 2021, Accepted 20 Apr 2022, Published online: 29 Apr 2022

References

  • Roth GA, Mensah GA, Johnson CO, et al. Global Burden of Cardiovascular Diseases and Risk Factors, 1990-2019: update From the GBD 2019 Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;76(25):2982–3021.
  • Ambrose JA, Tannenbaum MA, Alexopoulos D, et al. Angiographic progression of coronary artery disease and the development of myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1988;12(1):56–62.
  • Hadamitzky M, Achenbach S, Al-Mallah M, et al. Optimized prognostic score for coronary computed tomographic angiography: results from the CONFIRM registry (COronary CT Angiography EvaluatioN For Clinical Outcomes: an InteRnational Multicenter Registry). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;62(5):468–476.
  • Naoum C, Berman DS, Ahmadi A, et al. Predictive Value of Age- and Sex-Specific Nomograms of Global Plaque Burden on Coronary Computed Tomography Angiography for Major Cardiac Events. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2017;10(3). DOI:https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCIMAGI896NG.116.004.
  • Ferencik M, Mayrhofer T, Bittner DO, et al. Use of High-Risk Coronary Atherosclerotic Plaque Detection for Risk Stratification of Patients With Stable Chest Pain: a Secondary Analysis of the PROMISE Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Cardiol. 2018;3(2):144–152.
  • Gulati M, Levy PD, Mukherjee D, et al. 2021 AHA/ACC/ASE/CHEST/SAEM/SCCT/SCMR Guideline for the Evaluation and Diagnosis of Chest Pain: executive Summary: a Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Joint Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation. CIR.0000000000001030.
  • Khalil MF, Wagner WD, Goldberg IJ. Molecular Interactions Leading to Lipoprotein Retention and the Initiation of Atherosclerosis. Arteriosclerosis. Thrombosis Vasc Biol. 2004;24(12):2211–2218.
  • Chait A, Wight TN. Interaction of native and modified low-density lipoproteins with extracellular matrix. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2000;11(5):457–463.
  • Tabas I. Macrophage death and defective inflammation resolution in atherosclerosis. Nature reviews. Immunology. 2010;10(1):36–46.
  • Tabas I, Williams KJ, Borén J. Subendothelial Lipoprotein Retention as the Initiating Process in Atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2007;116(16):1832–1844.
  • Hansson GK. Immune Mechanisms in Atherosclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2001;21(12):1876–1890.
  • Davignon J, Ganz P. Role of Endothelial Dysfunction in Atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2004;109(23_suppl_1):III-27-III–32.
  • Swirski FK, Libby P, Aikawa E, et al. Ly-6C hi monocytes dominate hypercholesterolemia-associated monocytosis and give rise to macrophages in atheromata. J Clin Invest. 2007;117(1):195–205.
  • Tacke F, Alvarez D, Kaplan TJ, et al. Monocyte subsets differentially employ CCR2, CCR5, and CX3CR1 to accumulate within atherosclerotic plaques. J Clin Invest. 2007;117(1):185–194.
  • Geng Y-J, Libby P. Progression of Atheroma. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2002;22(9):1370–1380.
  • Llodrá J, Angeli V, Liu J, et al. Emigration of monocyte-derived cells from atherosclerotic lesions characterizes regressive, but not progressive, plaques. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004;101(32):11779.
  • Virmani R, Kolodgie FD, Burke AP, et al. Lessons From Sudden Coronary Death. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2000;20(5):1262–1275.
  • Burke AP, Kolodgie FD, Farb A, et al. Healed Plaque Ruptures and Sudden Coronary Death. Circulation. 2001;103(7):934–940.
  • Shioi A, Ikari Y. Plaque Calcification During Atherosclerosis Progression and Regression. J Atheroscler Thromb. 2018;25(4):294–303.
  • Andrews J, Psaltis PJ, Bartolo BAD, et al. Coronary arterial calcification: a review of mechanisms, promoters and imaging. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2018;28(8):491–501.
  • St Clair RW. Atherosclerosis regression in animal models: current concepts of cellular and biochemical mechanisms. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 1983;26(2):109–132.
  • Lee S-E, Chang H-J, Sung JM, et al. Effects of Statins on Coronary Atherosclerotic Plaques. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2018;11(10):1475–1484.
  • Nissen SE, Tuzcu EM, Schoenhagen P, et al. Effect of Intensive Compared With Moderate Lipid-Lowering Therapy on Progression of Coronary AtherosclerosisA Randomized Controlled Trial. JAMA. 2004;291(9):1071–1080.
  • Tsujita K, Sugiyama S, Sumida H, et al. Impact of Dual Lipid-Lowering Strategy With Ezetimibe and Atorvastatin on Coronary Plaque Regression in Patients With Percutaneous Coronary Intervention: the Multicenter Randomized Controlled PRECISE-IVUS Trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015;66(5):495–507.
  • Roelandt JRTC, Serruys PW, Bom N, et al. Intravascular real-time, two-dimensional echocardiography. Int J Cardiac Imaging. 1989;4(1):63–67.
  • Nissen SE, Yock P. Intravascular Ultrasound. Circulation. 2001;103(4):604–616.
  • Lewis MA, Pascoal A, Keevil SF, et al. Selecting a CT scanner for cardiac imaging: the heart of the matter. Br J Radiol. 2016;89(1065):20160376.
  • Hetterich H, Webber N, Willner M, et al. AHA classification of coronary and carotid atherosclerotic plaques by grating-based phase-contrast computed tomography. Eur Radiol. 2016;26(9):3223–3233.
  • Kramer CM, Anderson JD. MRI of atherosclerosis: diagnosis and monitoring therapy. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2007;5(1):69–80.
  • Mintz GS, Garcia-Garcia H, Nicholls S, et al. Clinical expert consensus document on standards for acquisition, measurement and reporting of intravascular ultrasound regression/progression studies. EuroIntervention. 2011;6(9):1123–30, 9.
  • Papadopoulou S-L, Neefjes LA, Garcia-Garcia HM, et al. Natural History of Coronary Atherosclerosis by Multislice Computed Tomography. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2012;5(3_Supplement):S28–S37.
  • Kini Annapoorna S, Vengrenyuk Y, Yoshimura T, et al. Fibrous Cap Thickness by Optical Coherence Tomography In Vivo. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;69(6):644–657.
  • Endo A. A historical perspective on the discovery of statins. Proc Jpn Acad Ser B Phys Biol Sci. 2010;86(5):484–493.
  • Brown G, Albers JJ, Fisher LD, et al. Regression of Coronary Artery Disease as a Result of Intensive Lipid-Lowering Therapy in Men with High Levels of Apolipoprotein B. N Engl J Med. 1990;323(19):1289–1298.
  • Blankenhorn DH, Azen SP, Kramsch DM, et al. Coronary angiographic changes with lovastatin therapy. The Monitored Atherosclerosis Regression Study (Mars). Ann Intern Med. 1993;119(10):969–976.
  • Waters D, Higginson L, Gladstone P, et al. Effects of cholesterol lowering on the progression of coronary atherosclerosis in women. A Canadian Coronary Atherosclerosis Intervention Trial (CCAIT) substudy. Circulation. 1995;92(9):2404–2410.
  • Jukema JW, Bruschke AVG, van Boven AJ, et al. Effects of lipid lowering by pravastatin on progression and regression of coronary artery disease in symptomatic men with normal to moderately elevated serum cholesterol levels. The Regression Growth Evaluation Statin Study (REGRESS). Circulation. 1995;91(10):2528–2540.
  • Nissen SE, Nicholls SJ, Sipahi I, et al. Effect of Very High-Intensity Statin Therapy on Regression of Coronary AtherosclerosisThe ASTEROID Trial. JAMA. 2006;295(13):1556–1565.
  • Nicholls SJ, Ballantyne CM, Barter PJ, et al. Effect of two intensive statin regimens on progression of coronary disease. N Engl J Med. 2011;365(22):2078–2087.
  • Takayama T, Hiro T, Yamagishi M, et al. Effect of Rosuvastatin on Coronary Atheroma in Stable Coronary Artery Disease Multicenter Coronary Atherosclerosis Study Measuring Effects of Rosuvastatin Using Intravascular Ultrasound in Japanese Subjects (COSMOS). Circ J. 2009;73(11):2110–2117.
  • Komukai K, Kubo T, Kitabata H, et al. Effect of atorvastatin therapy on fibrous cap thickness in coronary atherosclerotic plaque as assessed by optical coherence tomography: the EASY-FIT study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2014;64(21):2207–2217.
  • Nishiguchi T, Kubo T, Tanimoto T, et al. Effect of Early Pitavastatin Therapy on Coronary Fibrous-Cap Thickness Assessed by Optical Coherence Tomography in Patients With Acute Coronary Syndrome: the ESCORT Study. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2018;11(6):829–838.
  • Otaki Y, Tamarappoo B, Cadet SJ, et al. Decrease in LDL-C is associated with decrease in all components of noncalcified plaque on coronary CTA. Atherosclerosis. 2019;285:128–134.
  • Hoffmann U, Lu MT, Olalere D, et al. Rationale and design of the Mechanistic Substudy of the Randomized Trial to Prevent Vascular Events in HIV (REPRIEVE): effects of pitavastatin on coronary artery disease and inflammatory biomarkers. Am Heart J. 2019;212:1–12.
  • Cannon CP, Blazing MA, Giugliano RP, et al. Ezetimibe Added to Statin Therapy after Acute Coronary Syndromes. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(25):2387–2397.
  • Hougaard M, Hansen HS, Thayssen P, et al. Influence of ezetimibe in addition to high-dose atorvastatin therapy on plaque composition in patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction assessed by serial: intravascular ultrasound with iMap: the OCTIVUS trial. Cardiovasc Revasc Med. 2017;18(2):110–117.
  • Ueda Y, Hiro T, Hirayama A, et al. Effect of Ezetimibe on Stabilization and Regression of Intracoronary Plaque - The ZIPANGU Study. Circ J. 2017;81(11):1611–1619.
  • Nicholls SJ, Puri R, Anderson T, et al. Effect of Evolocumab on Progression of Coronary Disease in Statin-Treated Patients: the GLAGOV Randomized Clinical Trial. Jama. 2016;316(22):2373–2384.
  • Ako J, Hibi K, Tsujita K, et al. Effect of Alirocumab on Coronary Atheroma Volume in Japanese Patients With Acute Coronary Syndrome - The ODYSSEY J-IVUS Trial. Circ J. 2019;83(10):2025–2033.
  • Zanchin C, Koskinas KC, Ueki Y, et al. Effects of the PCSK9 antibody alirocumab on coronary atherosclerosis in patients with acute myocardial infarction: a serial, multivessel, intravascular ultrasound, near-infrared spectroscopy and optical coherence tomography imaging study-Rationale and design of the PACMAN-AMI trial. Am Heart J. 2021;238:33–44.
  • Hirai K, Imamura S, Hirai A, et al. Effect of Evolocumab on Vulnerable Coronary Plaques: a Serial Coronary Computed Tomography Angiography Study. J Clin Med. 2020;9(10):3338.
  • Bays HE, Tighe AP, Sadovsky R, et al. Prescription omega-3 fatty acids and their lipid effects: physiologic mechanisms of action and clinical implications. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2008;6(3):391–409.
  • Sperling LS, Nelson JR. History and future of omega-3 fatty acids in cardiovascular disease. Curr Med Res Opin. 2016;32(2):301–311.
  • Jump DB, Depner CM, Tripathy S. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation and cardiovascular disease. J Lipid Res. 2012;53(12):2525–2545.
  • Ando K, Watanabe T, Daidoji H, et al. Combination Therapy of Eicosapentaenoic Acid and Pitavastatin for Coronary Plaque Regression Evaluated by Integrated Backscatter Intravascular Ultrasonography: a Randomized Controlled Trial. Circulation. 2015;132. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.015242
  • Niki T, Wakatsuki T, Yamaguchi K, et al. Effects of the Addition of Eicosapentaenoic Acid to Strong Statin Therapy on Inflammatory Cytokines and Coronary Plaque Components Assessed by Integrated Backscatter Intravascular Ultrasound. Circ J. 2016;80(2):450–460.
  • Nagahara Y, Sarai M, Ito H, et al. The impact of eicosapentaenoic acid on prevention of plaque progression detected by coronary computed tomography angiography [abstract P5235]. Eur Heart J. 2016;37:1052.
  • Budoff MJ, Muhlestein JB, Bhatt DL, et al. Effect of icosapent ethyl on progression of coronary atherosclerosis in patients with elevated triglycerides on statin therapy: a prospective, placebo-controlled randomized trial (EVAPORATE): interim results. Cardiovasc Res. 2021;117(4):1070–1077.
  • Lakshmanan S, Buckler A, Bhatt DL, et al. Abstract 15389: effect of Icosapent Ethyl on Changes in Coronary Plaque Characteristics at 9 Months in Patients With Elevated Triglycerides on Statin Therapy: insights From EVAPORATE. Circulation. 2020;142(Suppl_3):A15389–A15389.
  • Kita Y, Watanabe M, Kamon D, et al. Effects of Fatty Acid Therapy in Addition to Strong Statin on Coronary Plaques in Acute Coronary Syndrome: an Optical Coherence Tomography Study. J Am Heart Assoc. 2020;9(16):e015593.
  • Reiner Z. Managing the residual cardiovascular disease risk associated with HDL-cholesterol and triglycerides in statin-treated patients: a clinical update. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2013;23(9):799–807.
  • Schwartz GG, Olsson AG, Abt M, et al. Effects of dalcetrapib in patients with a recent acute coronary syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2012;367(22):2089–2099.
  • Fayad ZA, Mani V, Woodward M, et al. Safety and efficacy of dalcetrapib on atherosclerotic disease using novel non-invasive multimodality imaging (dal-PLAQUE): a randomised clinical trial. Lancet. 2011;378(9802):1547–1559.
  • Vaidya K, Arnott C, Martínez GJ, et al. Colchicine Therapy and Plaque Stabilization in Patients With Acute Coronary Syndrome. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2018;11(2_Part_2):305–316.
  • Choi H, Uceda DE, Dey AK, et al. Treatment of Psoriasis With Biologic Therapy Is Associated With Improvement of Coronary Artery Plaque Lipid-Rich Necrotic Core: results From a Prospective, Observational Study. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging. 2020;13(9):e011199.
  • Karpouzas GA, Ormseth SR, Hernandez E, et al. Biologics May Prevent Cardiovascular Events in Rheumatoid Arthritis by Inhibiting Coronary Plaque Formation and Stabilizing High-Risk Lesions. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2020;72(9):1467–1475.
  • Spanbroek R, Gräbner R, Lötzer K, et al. Expanding expression of the 5-lipoxygenase pathway within the arterial wall during human atherogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003;100(3):1238–1243.
  • Matsumoto S, Ibrahim R, Grégoire JC, et al. Effect of treatment with 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor VIA −2291 (atreleuton) on coronary plaque progression: a serial CT angiography study. Clin Cardiol. 2017;40(4):210–215.
  • Ko YG, Choi SH, Chol Kang W, et al. Effects of combination therapy with cilostazol and probucol versus monotherapy with cilostazol on coronary plaque, lipid and biomarkers: SECURE study, a double-blind randomized controlled clinical trial. J Atheroscler Thromb. 2014;21(8):816–830.
  • Lee DH, Chun EJ, Oh TJ, et al. Effect of cilostazol, a phosphodiesterase-3 inhibitor, on coronary artery stenosis and plaque characteristics in patients with type 2 diabetes: ESCAPE study. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2019;21(6):1409–1418.
  • Elango K, Javaid A, Khetarpal BK, et al. The Effects of Warfarin and Direct Oral Anticoagulants on Systemic Vascular Calcification: a Review. Cells. 2021;10(4):773.
  • Plank F, Beyer C, Friedrich G, et al. Influence of vitamin K antagonists and direct oral anticoagulation on coronary artery disease: a CTA analysis. Int J Cardiol. 2018;260:11–15.
  • Win TT, Nakanishi R, Osawa K, et al. Apixaban versus warfarin in evaluation of progression of atherosclerotic and calcified plaques (prospective randomized trial). Am Heart J. 2019;212:129–133.
  • Nicholls SJ, Tuzcu EM, Wolski K, et al. Lowering the triglyceride/high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio is associated with the beneficial impact of pioglitazone on progression of coronary atherosclerosis in diabetic patients: insights from the PERISCOPE (Pioglitazone Effect on Regression of Intravascular Sonographic Coronary Obstruction Prospective Evaluation) study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;57(2):153–159.
  • Patil HR, Al Badarin FJ, Al Shami HA, et al. Meta-Analysis of Effect of Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 Inhibitors on Cardiovascular Risk in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. Am J Cardiol. 2012;110(6):826–833.
  • Monami M, Ahrén B, Dicembrini I, et al. Dipeptidyl peptidase‐4 inhibitors and cardiovascular risk: a meta‐analysis of randomized clinical trials. Diabetes Obesity Metab. 2013;15(2):112–120.
  • Scirica BM, Bhatt DL, Braunwald E, et al. Saxagliptin and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. N Engl J Med. 2013;369(14):1317–1326.
  • White WB, Cannon CP, Heller SR, et al. Alogliptin after Acute Coronary Syndrome in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2013;369(14):1327–1335.
  • Nozue T, Takamura T, Fukui K, et al. Changes in coronary atherosclerosis, composition, and fractional flow reserve evaluated by coronary computed tomography angiography in patients with type 2 diabetes. Int J Cardiol Heart Vasc. 2018;19:46–51.
  • Kataoka Y, Nicholls SJ, Andrews J, et al. Plaque microstructures during metformin therapy in type 2 diabetic subjects with coronary artery disease: optical coherence tomography analysis. Cardiovasc Diagn Ther. 2022;12(1):77–87.
  • Scherer D, Kataoka Y, Pisaniello A, et al. Characteristics of plaque microstructures in diabetic patients receiving metformin: frequency domain optical coherence tomography analysis. Heart Lung Circ. 2015;24:S331.
  • Institute of Medicine Committee on Assessing the Need for Clinical Trials of Testosterone Replacement, T. Testosterone and Aging: clinical Research Directions. Liverman CT, Blazer DG, Editors. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US) Copyright 2004 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved; 2004.
  • Barrett-Connor E, Khaw KT. Endogenous sex hormones and cardiovascular disease in men. A prospective population-based study. Circulation. 1988;78(3):539–545.
  • Smith GD, Ben-Shlomo Y, Beswick A, et al. Cortisol, testosterone, and coronary heart disease: prospective evidence from the Caerphilly study. Circulation. 2005;112(3):332–340.
  • Henzel J, KepKa C, Kruk C, et al. High-Risk Coronary Plaque Regression After Intensive Lifestyle Intervention in Nonobstructive Coronary Disease: a Randomized Study. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2021;14(6):1192–1202.
  • Fang JC, Kinlay S, Beltrame J, et al. Effect of vitamins C and E on progression of transplant-associated arteriosclerosis: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2002;359(9312):1108–1113.
  • Shaikh K, Kinninger A, Cherukuri L, et al. Aged garlic extract reduces low attenuation plaque in coronary arteries of patients with diabetes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Exp Ther Med. 2020;19(2):1457–1461.
  • Nicholls SJ, Hsu A, Wolski K, et al. Intravascular ultrasound-derived measures of coronary atherosclerotic plaque burden and clinical outcome. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;55(21):2399–2407.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.