Does “face” constrain Mainland Chinese people from starting new leisure activities?

References

• 2008 and 2009 average annual salary in China's cities. (2010, July 18). China Financial Daily. http://www.chinafinancialdaily.com/financial/news/2010/07/18/12325/2008-and-2009-average-annual-salary-in-chinas-cities.html (http://www.chinafinancialdaily.com/financial/news/2010/07/18/12325/2008-and-2009-average-annual-salary-in-chinas-cities.html) (Accessed: 17 February 2011 ).
   Google Scholar
• Ajzen , I. 1991 . The theory of planned behaviour . Organizational Behaviour and Human Decision Process , 50 : 179 – 211 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aloneso , J. , Anto , J.M. and Moreno , C. 1990 . Spanish version of the Nottingham Health Profile: Translation and preliminary validity . American Journal of Public Health , 80 : 704 – 708 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychological Association Task Force on Statistical Inference . 1999 . Statistical methods in psychology journals: Guidelines and explanations . American Psychologist , 54 : 594 – 604 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnett , J. 2008 . The neglected 95%: Why American psychology needs to become less American . American Psychologist , 63 : 602 – 614 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• BBC News: Business. (2011, February 23). China overtakes Japan as world's second biggest economy. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-12427321 (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-12427321)
   Google Scholar
• Berry , J.W. , Poortinga , Y.H. , Segall , M.H. and Dasen , P.R. 2002 . Cross-cultural psychology: Research and application , 2nd , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Brislin , R.W. 1970 . Back-translation for cross-cultural research . Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology , 1 : 185 – 216 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canadian Tourism Commission. (2010, April 21). China: Current trends and market situations. Retrieved from http://en-corporate.canada.travel/ChinaMarket (http://en-corporate.canada.travel/ChinaMarket)
   Google Scholar
• Chen , C. , Lee , S. and Stevenson , H.W. 1995 . Response style and cross-cultural comparisons of rating scales among east Asian and North American students . Psychological Science , 6 : 170 – 175 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chick , G. and Dong , E. 2003 . The possibility of refining the hierarchical model of leisure constraints through cross-cultural research , Bolton Lake, NY : Presented at the annual meeting of the Northeastern Recreation Research Symposium .
   Google Scholar
• Chick , G. and Dong , E. 2005 . “ Cultural constraints on leisure ” . In Constraints to leisure , Edited by: Jackson , E.L. 169 – 183 . State College, PA : Venture .
   Google Scholar
• China Tourist Bureau. (2003). 2003 Bulletin of China tourist industry. Retrieved from http://www.cnta.gov.cn (http://www.cnta.gov.cn)
   Google Scholar
• Cohen , J.W. 1988 . Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences , 2nd , Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Comparison of Two Correlation Coefficients. (2011). Interactive statistical calculation pages. Retrieved from http://statpages.org/ (http://statpages.org/)
   Google Scholar
• Comrey , A. and Lee , H. 1992 . A first course in factor analysis , 2nd , Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Crawford , D.W. and Godbey , G. 1987 . Reconceptualizing barriers to family leisure . Leisure Sciences , 9 : 119 – 127 .
   Google Scholar
• Crawford , D.W. , Jackson , E.L. and Godbey , G. 1991 . A hierarchical model of leisure constraints . Leisure Sciences , 13 : 309 – 320 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cronbach , L. and Gleser , G. 1965 . Psychological tests and personnel decisions , 2nd , Urbana, IL : University of Illinois Press .
   Google Scholar
• Deci , E. and Ryan , R. 2000 . The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior . Psychological Inquiry , 11 : 227 – 268 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deng , J. , Walker , G.J. and Swinnerton , G. 2005 . Leisure attitudes: A comparison between Chinese in Canada and Anglo-Canadians . Leisure/Loisir , 29 : 239 – 273 .
   Google Scholar
• Gao , G. 1998 . An initial analysis of the effects of face and concern for “other” in Chinese interpersonal communication . International Journal of Intercultural Relations , 22 : 467 – 482 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilbert , D. and Tsao , J. 2000 . Exploring Chinese cultural influences and hospitality marketing relationships . International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management , 12 : 45 – 53 .
   Google Scholar
• Godbey , G. , Crawford , D. and Shen , X. 2010 . Assessing hierarchical leisure constraints theory after two decades . Journal of Leisure Research , 42 : 111 – 134 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ho , D.Y.F. 1976 . On the concept of face . The American Journal of Sociology , 81 : 867 – 884 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu , H.C. 1944 . The Chinese concepts of “face” . American Anthropologist , 46 : 45 – 64 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu , H.C. 2004 . “ 中国人的面子观 [Face, from a Chinese perspective] ” . In Face: Chinese power games , Edited by: Hu , H.C. and Huang , G.G. 57 – 83 . Beijing : China Renmin University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , E.L. 1991 . Leisure constraints/constrained leisure: Special issue introduction . Journal of Leisure Research , 23 : 279 – 285 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jackson , E.L. , ed. 2005 . Constraints to leisure , State College, PA : Venture Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , E.L. and Scott , D. 1999 . “ Constraints to leisure ” . In Leisure studies: Prospects for the twenty-first century , Edited by: Jackson , E.L. and Burton , T. 299 – 321 . State College, PA : Venture Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Kwek , A. and Lee , Y.-S. 2010 . Chinese tourists and Confucianism . Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research , 15 : 129 – 141 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li , X. , Harrill , R. , Uysal , M. , Burnett , T. and Zhan , X. 2010 . Estimating the size of the Chinese outbound travel market: A demand-side approach . Tourism Management , 31 : 250 – 259 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mak , W.W.S. , Chen , S.X. , Lam , A.G. and Yiu , V.F.L. 2009 . Understanding distress: The role of face concern among Chinese Americans, European Americans, Hong Kong Chinese, and Mainland Chinese . The Counseling Psychologist , 37 : 219 – 248 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markus , H. and Kitayama , S. 1991 . Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation . Psychological Review , 98 : 224 – 253 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morrison, W.M. (2009, November 20). China-U.S. trade issues. Retrieved from http://assets.opencrs.com/rpts/RL33536_20090917.pdf (http://assets.opencrs.com/rpts/RL33536_20090917.pdf)
   Google Scholar
• Nunnally , J.C. 1967 . Psychometric theory , 1st , New York : McGraw-Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Raymore , L. , Godbey , G. , Crawford , D. and von Eye , A. 1993 . Nature and process of leisure constraints: An empirical test . Leisure Sciences , 15 : 99 – 113 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Redding , S.G. 1982 . Cultural effects on the marketing process in Southeast Asia . Journal of the Market Research Society , 24 : 98 – 114 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Son , J.S. , Kerstetter , D.L. and Mowen , A.J. 2008 . Do age and gender matter in the constraint negotiation of physically active leisure? . Journal of Leisure Research , 40 : 267 – 289 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Statistics Canada. (2010, March 12). Projections of the diversity of the Canadian population. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/91-551-x/91-551-x2010001-eng.pdf (http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/91-551-x/91-551-x2010001-eng.pdf)
   Google Scholar
• Sun , J. and Wang , X. 2010 . Value differences between generations in China: A study in Shanghai . Journal of Youth Studies , 13 : 65 – 81 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabachnick , B. and Fidell , L. 2007 . Using multivariate statistics , 5th , Boston, MA : Pearson .
   Google Scholar
• Ting-Toomey , S. and Kurogi , A. 1998 . Facework competence in intercultural conflict: An updated face-negotiation theory . International Journal of Intercultural Relation , 22 : 187 – 225 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ting-Toomey , S. and Oetzel , J.G. 2001 . Managing intercultural conflict effectively , Newbury Park, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Triandis , H. 1995 . Individualism & collectivism , Boulder, CO : Westview Press .
   Google Scholar
• van de Vijver , F. and Leung , K. 1997 . Methods and data analysis for cross-cultural research , Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Vaske , J. 2008 . Survey research analysis: Applications in parks, recreation, and human dimensions , State College, PA : Venture Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Visser , P. , Krosnick , J. and Lavrakas , P. 2000 . “ Survey research ” . In Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology , Edited by: Reis , H. and Judd , C. 223 – 252 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Walker , G.J. 2007 . “ Multicultural perspectives ” . In Leisure for Canadians , Edited by: McCarville , R. and MacKay , K. 151 – 161 . State College, PA : Venture Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Walker , G.J. , Jackson , E.L. and Deng , J. 2007 . Culture and leisure constraints: A comparison of Canadian and Mainland Chinese university students . Journal of Leisure Research , 39 : 567 – 590 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker , G.J. , Jackson , E.L. and Deng , J. 2008 . The role of self-construal as an intervening variable between culture and leisure constraints: A comparison of Canadian and Mainland Chinese university students . Journal of Leisure Research , 40 : 90 – 109 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang , Q. 1999 . Time allocation of urban household . Economic Science Press , : 1 – 5 .
   Google Scholar
• Wang , X. and Walker , G.J. 2011 . The effect of face concerns on university students' leisure travel: A cross-cultural comparison . Journal of Leisure Research , 43 : 134 – 148 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xiao , H. 2003 . “ Leisure in China ” . In Tourism in China , Edited by: Lew , A. , Yu , L. , Ap , J. and Guangrui , Z. 263 – 275 . New York : Haworth Hospitality Press .
   Google Scholar
• Yin , X. 2005 . New trends of leisure consumption in China . Journal of Family and Economic Issues , 26 : 175 – 182 .
   Google Scholar
• Zane , N. and Yeh , M. 2002 . “ The use of culturally-based variable in assessment: Studies on loss of face ” . In Asian American mental health: Assessment theories and methods , Edited by: Kurasaki , K. , Okazaki , S. and Sue , S. 123 – 140 . Dordrecht, The Netherlands : Kluwer Academic .
   Google Scholar