8
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

Chlorine gas inhalation: mechanisms of injury and treatment

&
Pages 75-81 | Published online: 13 Jul 2009

References

  • Anonymous. The World Chlorine Council and sustainable development. The World Chlorine Council, 2002. www. worldchlorine.org/publications/pdf/report.pdf (accessed: 13 January 2005).
  • Gilliatt B. Chlorine Industry Review 2003-2004. Euro Chlor 2004. http://www.eurochlor.org/chlorine/reviews/ 2004/production.htm (accessed: 13 January 2005).
  • Horton D, Berkowitz Z, Kaye W. The public health consequences from acute chlorine releases, 1993-2000. J Occup Environ Med. 2002;44:906–13.
  • Greenfield R, Lutz B, Huycke M, Gilmore M. Unconventional biological threats and the molecular bio- logical response to biological threats. Am J Med Sci. 2002;323:350–57.
  • Gilchrist HL, Matz PB. The residual effects of warfare gases: the use of chlorine gas, with report of cases. Med Bull Vet Adm. 1933;9:439–55.
  • Winternitz MC, Lambert RA, Jackson L, Smith GH. The pathology of chlorine poisoning. In: Winternitz MC, editor. Collected studies on the pathology of war gas poisoning. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1920:1–31.
  • Winder C. The toxicology of chlorine. Environ Res. 2001;85:105–14.
  • Nodelman V, Ultman J. Longitudinal distribution of chlorine absorption in human airways: a comparison to ozone absorption. J Appl Physiol. 1999;87:2073–80.
  • Barrow C, Alarie Y, Warrick J, Stock M. Comparison of the sensory irritation response in mice to chlorine and hydrogen chloride. Arch Environ Health. 1977;32:68–76.
  • Adelson LA, Kaufman J. Fatal chlorine poisoning: report of two cases with clinicopathologic correlation. Am J Clin Pathol. 1971;56:430–42.
  • Eiserich J, Cross C, Jones A, Halliwell B, van der Vliet A. Formation of nitrating and chlorinating species by reaction of nitrite with hypochlorous acid. A novel mechanism for nitric oxide-mediated protein modification. J Biol Chem. 1996;271:19199–208.
  • van der Vliet A, Eiserich J, Halliwell B, Cross C. Formation of reactive nitrogen species during peroxidase-catalyzed oxida- tion of nitrite. A potential additional mechanism of nitric oxide-dependent toxicity. J Biol Chem. 1997;272:7617–25.
  • Martin J, Campbell H, Iijima H, Gautrin D, Malo J, Eidelman D, et al. Chlorine-induced injury to the airways in the mouse. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;30:568–74.
  • Gunnarsson M, Walther SM, Seidal T, Bloom GD, Lennquist S. Exposure to chlorine gas: effects on pulmonary function and morphology in anaesthetised and mechanically ventilated pigs. J Appl Toxicol. 1998;18:249–55.
  • Gunnarsson M, Walther SM, Seidal T, Lennquist S. Effects of inhalation of corticosteroids immediately after experimen- tal chlorine gas lung injury. J Trauma. 2000;48:101–7.
  • Wang J, Zhang L, Walther S. Inhaled budesonide in experimental chlorine gas lung injury: influence of time interval between injury and treatment. Intensive Care Med. 2002;28:352–7.
  • Wang J, Abu-Zidan F, Walther S. Effects of prone and supine posture after severe chlorine gas lung injury in anaesthetized and mechanically ventilated pigs. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2002;46:1094–102.
  • Wang J, Zhang L, Walther S. Administration of aerosolized terbutaline and budesonide reduces chlorine gas-induced acute lung injury. J Trauma. 2004;56:850–62.
  • Wang J, Winskog C, Edston E, Walther S. Inhaled and intravenous corticosteroids both attenuate chlorine gas- induced lung injury in pigs. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2005; 49:183–90.
  • Menaouar A, Anglade D, Baussand P, Pelloux A, Corboz M, Lantuejoul S, et al. Chlorine gas induced acute lung injury in isolated rabbit lung. Eur Respir J. 1997;10:1100–7.
  • Suzuki S, Sakamoto S, Maniwa K, Saitoh A, Hirayama Y, Kobayashi H, et al. Fatal pulmonary arterial thrombosis associated with chlorine gas poisoning. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost. 2001;7:356–8.
  • Demnati R, Fraser R, Plaa G, Malo JL. Histopathological effects of acute exposure to chlorine gas on Sprague-Dawley rat lungs. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol. 1995;14:15–19.
  • Pino F, Puerta H, D'Apollo R, Ferrer M, Arias I, Irastorza IM, et al. Effectiveness of morphine in non- cardiogenic pulmonary edema due to chlorine gas inhalation. Vet Hum Toxicol. 1993;35:36.
  • Cordasco E, Stone F. Pulmonary edema of environmental origin. Chest. 1973;64:182–5.
  • Lawson JJ. Chlorine exposure: a challenge to the physician. Am Fam Physician. 1981;23:135–8.
  • Colardyn F, Van Der Straeten M, Tasson J, Van Egmond J. Acute chlorine gas intoxication. Acta Clin Belg. 1976;31:707.
  • Broccard A, Shapiro R, Schmitz L, Adams A, Nahum A, Marini J. Prone positioning attenuates and redistributes ventilator-induced lung injury in dogs. Crit Care Med. 2000;28:295–303.
  • Sexton JD, Prochik DJ. Chlorine inhalation: the big picture. Clin Toxicol. 1998;36:87–93.
  • Guloglu C, Kara I, Erten P. Acute accidental exposure to chlorine gas in the southeast of Turkey: A study of 106 cases. Environ Res. 2002;88:89–93.
  • Svedmyr N. Effects of glucocorticoids on the airways. Eur J Respir Dis Suppl. 1982;122:48–53.
  • Demnati R, Fraser R, Martin JG, Plaa G, Malo JL. Effects of dexamethasone on functional and pathological changes in rat bronchi caused by high acute exposure to chlorine. Toxicol Sci. 1998;45:242–6.
  • Becklake M. The longterm effects of exposure to nitrous fumes. Am Rev Tuberc. 1957;76:398.
  • Agabiti N, Ancona C, Forastiere F, Di Napoli A, Lo Presti E, Corbo GM, et al. Short term respiratory effects of acute exposure to chlorine due to a swimming pool accident. Occup Environ Med. 2001;58:399–404.
  • Chester EH, Kaimal J, Payne CB Jr, Kohn PM. Pulmonary injury following exposure to chlorine gas. Possible beneficial effects of steroid treatment. Chest. 1977;72:247–50.
  • Ramachandran KA, Chawla IS, Khokhar P. Acute chlorine poisoning. A study of 84 cases. J Assoc Physicians India. 1990;38:489–90.
  • Fleta J, Calvo C, Zuniga J, Castellano M, Bueno M. Intoxication of 76 children by chlorine gas. Hum Toxicol. 1986;5:99–100.
  • Donnelly SC, FitzGerald MX. Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome (RADS) due to chlorine gas exposure. Irish J Med Sci. 1990; 159:275-6;discussion 276–7.
  • Moulick ND, Banavali S, Abhyankar AD, Borkar S, Aiyengar J, Kapadia NM, et al. Acute accidental exposure to chlorine fumes - a study of 82 cases. Indian J Chest Dis Allied Sci. 1992;34:85–9.
  • Lemiere C, Malo JL, Boutet M. Reactive airways dysfunction syndrome due to chlorine: sequential bronchial biopsies and functional assessment. Eur Respir J. 1997;10:241–4.
  • Smith M, Hodson M. High-dose beclomethasone inhaler in the treatment of asthma. Lancet. 1983;1:265–9.
  • Taylor D, Hancox R. Interactions between corticosteroids and beta agonists. Thorax. 2000;55:595–602.
  • Lofdahl C, Solvell L, Laurell A, Johansson B. Systemic capillary leak syndrome with monoclonal IgG and comple- ment alterations. A case report on an episodic syndrome. Acta Med Scand. 1979;206:405–12.
  • Vinsel PJ. Treatment of acute chlorine gas inhalation with nebulized sodium bicarbonate. J Emerg Med. 1990;8:327–9.
  • Bosse GM. Nebulized sodium bicarbonate in the treatment of chlorine gas inhalation. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol. 1994;32:233–41.
  • Chisholm C, Singletary E, Okerberg C, Langlinais P. Inhaled sodium bicarbonate therapy for chlorine inhalation injuries. Ann Emerg Med. 1989;18:466.
  • Goldfrank L, Bresnitz E. Toxic inhalation. In: Goldfrank L, editor. Goldfrank's toxicologic emergencies, 3rd edn. East Norwalk, CT: Prentice-Hall, 1986:651–61.
  • Wood B, Colombo J, Benson B. Chlorine inhalation toxicity from vapors generated by swimming pool chlorinator tablets. Pediatrics. 1987;79:427–30.
  • Pipelzadeh M, Koocheck M, Karami M. Cromoglycate: a healing agent in acute chlorine-induced lung damage. Daru (Iranian Journal of Drugs). 2002;10:1–8.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.