Testing the “Proximate Casualties Hypothesis”: Local Troop Loss, Attention to News, and Support for Military Intervention

REFERENCES

• Abbott , E. A. , & Brassfield , L. T. ( 1989 ). Comparing decisions on releases by television and newspaper gatekeepers . Journalism Quarterly , 66 , 853 – 856 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aust , C. F. , & Dillman , D. ( 1996 ). Effects of victim exemplification in Television news on viewer perception of social issues . Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly , 73 , 787 – 803 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berinsky , A. ( 2007 ). Assuming the costs of war: Events, elites, and American public support for military conflict . Journal of Politics , 69 , 975 – 997 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berkowitz , D. ( 1990 ). Refining the gatekeeping metaphor for local TV news . Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media , 34 , 55 – 68 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blainey , G. ( 1973 ). The causes of war () , 3rd ed. . New York : Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• Boyd , A. ( 1994 ). Broadcast journalism, techniques of Radio and TV news . Oxford , UK : Focal .
   Google Scholar
• Burk , J. ( 1999 ). Public support for peacekeeping in Lebanon and Somalia: Assessing the casualties hypothesis . Political Science Quarterly , 114 , 53 – 78 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carpenter , S. ( 2007 ). U.S. elite and non-elite newspapers' portrayal of the Iraq War: A comparison of frames and source use . Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly , 84 , 761 – 776 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clayman , S. E. , & Reisner , A. ( 1998 ). Gatekeeping in action: Editorial conferences and assessments of newsworthiness . American Sociological Review , 63 , 178 – 199 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards , G. C. , Mitchell , W. , & Welch , R. ( 1995 ). Explaining presidential approval: The significance of issue salience . American Journal of Political Silence , 39 , 108 – 134 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eichenberg , R. C. ( 2005 ). Victory has many friends: U.S. public opinion and the use of military force, 1981–2005 . International Security , 30 , 140 – 177 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuller , J. ( 1996 ). News values: Ideas for an information age . Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Galtung , J. , & Ruge , M. (1965). The structure of foreign news: The presentation of the Congo, Cuba and Cyprus crises in four Norwegian newspapers. Journal of International Peace Research , 1, 64–91.
   Google Scholar
• Gartner , S. S. ( 2004 ). Making the international local: The terrorist attack on the USS Cole, local casualties, and media coverage . Political Communication , 21 , 139 – 159 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gartner , S. S. , & Segura , G. M. ( 1998 ). War, casualties and public opinion . The Journal of Conflict Resolution , 42 , 278 – 300 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gartner , S. S. , Segura , G. M. , & Wilkening , M. W. ( 1997 ). All politics are local: Local losses and individual attitudes toward the Vietnam War . Journal of Conflict Resolution , 41 , 669 – 694 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelpi , C. , Feaver , P. D. , & Reifler , J. ( 2005/6 ). Success matters: Casualty sensitivity and the war in Iraq . International Security , 30 , 7 – 46 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guo , G. , & Zhao , H. ( 2000 ). Multilevel modeling for binary data . Annual Review of Sociology , 26 , 441 – 462 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harcup , T. , & O'Neill , D. ( 2001 ). What is news? Galtung and Ruge revisited . Journalism Studies , 2 , 261 – 280 .
   Google Scholar
• Harmon , M. D. ( 1989 ). Mr. Gates goes electronic: The what and why questions in local Television news . Journalism Quarterly , 66 , 857 – 863 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heider , D. , McCombs , M. , & Poindexter , P. ( 2005 ). What the public expects of local news: Views on public and traditional journalism . Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly , 82 , 952 – 967 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herbert , J. ( 2000 ). Journalism in the digital age: Theory and practice for broadcast, print and on-line media . Oxford , UK : Focal Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hollander , B. ( 1996 ). Talk radio: Predictors of use and effects on attitudes about government . Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly , 73 , 102 – 113 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holsti , O. R. ( 1996 ). Public opinion and American foreign policy . Ann Arbor : University of Michigan Press .
   Google Scholar
• Iyengar , S. , & Hahn , K. S. ( 2009 ). Red media, blue media: Evidence of ideological polarization in media use . Journal of Communication , 59 , 19 – 39 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jentleson , B. W. , & Britton , R. L. ( 1998 ). Still pretty prudent: Post-Cold War American public opinion on the use of military force . Journal of Conflict Resolution , 42 , 395 – 417 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klarevas , L. J. ( 2002 ). The “essential domino” of military operations: American public opinion and the use of force . International Studies Perspectives , 3 , 417 – 437 .
   Google Scholar
• Klarevas , L. J. , Gelpi , C. , & Reifler , J. ( 2006 ). Casualties, the war, and public opinion . International Security , 31 , 186 – 198 .
   Google Scholar
• Kriner , D. L. ( 2006 ). Examining variance in presidential approval . Public Opinion Quarterly , 70 , 23 – 47 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kull , S. , Ramsay , C. , & Lewis , E. ( 2003–2004 ). Misperceptions, the media, and the Iraq War . Political Science Quarterly , 118 , 569 – 598 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Larson , E. V. ( 1996 ). Casualties and consensus: The historic role of casualties in domestic support for U.S. military operations . Santa Monia , CA : RAND Corporation .
   Google Scholar
• Lippmann , W. ( 1922 ). Public opinion . New York : Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• Little , R. J. A. , & Rubin , D. B. ( 2002 ). Statistical analysis with missing data () , 2nd ed. . Hoboken , NJ : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Miller , A. H. , Goldenberg , E. N. , & Erbring , L. ( 1979 ). Type-set politics: Impact of newspapers on public confidence . American Political Science Review , 73 , 67 – 84 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mueller , J. E. ( 1973 ). War, presidents, and public opinion . New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Mueller , J. E. ( 1994 ). Policy and opinion in the Gulf war . Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Myers , T. A. , & Hayes , A. F. (in press). Reframing the casualties hypothesis: (Mis)perception of troop loss and public opinion about war. International Journal of Public Opinion Research .
   Google Scholar
• Reiter , D. , & Stam , A. C. ( 1998 ). Democracy, war initiation, and victory . American Political Science Review , 92 , 377 – 389 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russett , B. ( 1993 ). Grasping the democratic peace . Princeton , NJ : Princeton University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Shaw , D. ( 2007 ). Really local . American Journalism Review , 29 , 54 – 57 .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , H. ( 2005 ). What costs will democracies bear?: A review of popular theories of casualty aversion . Armed Forces and Security , 31 , 487 – 512 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snijders , T. , & Bosker , R. ( 1999 ). Multilevel analysis: An introduction to advanced multilevel modeling . London : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Stam , A. ( 1996 ). Win, lose or draw: Domestic politics and the crucible of war . Ann Arbor : University of Michigan Press .
   Google Scholar
• Stroud , N. J. ( 2007 ). Media effects, selective exposure, and Fahrenheit 9/11 . Political Communication , 24 , 415 – 432 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor , S. E. , & Fisk , S. T. ( 1978 ). Salience, attention, and attribution: Top of the head phenomena . In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 11 , pp. 249 – 288 ). New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Zaller , J. , & Feldman , S. ( 1992 ). A simple theory of survey response: Answering questions versus revealing preferences . American Journal of Political Science , 36 , 579 – 616 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar