1,906
Views
81
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

Virtually True: Children's Acquisition of False Memories in Virtual Reality

&
Pages 371-393 | Received 09 Sep 2008, Published online: 01 Dec 2009

REFERENCES

  • Bailenson , J. N. , Beall , A. C. , Loomis , J. , Blascovich , J. and Turk , M. 2004 . Transformed social interaction: Decoupling representation from behavior and form in collaborative virtual environments. . PRESENCE: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments , 13 ( 4 ) : 428 – 441 .
  • Bailenson , J. N. , Blascovich , J. , Beall , A. C. and Loomis , J. M. 2001 . Equilibrium revisited: Mutual gaze and personal space in virtual environments. . PRESENCE: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments , 10 : 583 – 598 .
  • Bailenson , J. N. , Blascovich , J. , Beall , A. C. and Noveck , G. 2006 . Courtroom applications of virtual environments, immersive virtual environments, and collaborative virtual environments. . Law & Policy , 28 ( 2 ) : 249 – 270 .
  • Bailenson , J. N. , Blascovich , J. and Guadagno , R. E. 2008 . Self representations in immersive virtual environments. . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 38 ( 11 ) : 2673 – 2690 .
  • Bailenson , J. N. and Yee , N. 2007 . Virtual interpersonal touch: Haptics interaction and copresence in collaborative virtual environments. . International Journal of Multimedia Tools and Applications , 37 ( 1 ) : 5 – 14 .
  • Bailenson , J. N. , Yee , N. , Blascovich , J. , Beall , A. C. , Lundblad , N. and Jin , M. 2008 . The use of immersive virtual reality in the learning sciences: Digital transformations of teachers, students, and social context. . The Journal of the Learning Sciences , 17 : 102 – 141 .
  • Biocca , F . 1992 . Communication within virtual reality: Creating a space for research. . Journal of Communication , 42 ( 4 ) : 5 – 22 .
  • Blascovich , J. , Loomis , J. , Beall , A. , Swinth , K. , Hoyt , C. and Bailenson , J. N. 2002 . Immersive virtual environment technology as a methodological tool for social psychology. . Psychological Inquiry , 13 : 103 – 124 .
  • Bruck , M. and Ceci , S. J. 1999 . The suggestibility of children's memory. . Annual Review of Psychology , 50 : 419 – 439 .
  • Carlin , A. S. , Hoffman , H. G. and Weghorst , S. 1997 . Virtual reality and tactile augmentation in the treatment of spider phobia: A case report. . Behavior Research and Therapy , 35 ( 2 ) : 153 – 158 .
  • Ceci , S. J. , Loftus , E. F. , Leichtman , M. D. and Bruck , M. 1994 . The possible role of source misattributions in the creation of false beliefs among preschoolers. . International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis , 42 ( 4 ) : 304 – 320 .
  • Daft , R. L. , Lengel , R. H. and Trevino , L. K. 1987 . Message equivocality, media selection, and manager performance: Implications for information systems. . MIS Quarterly , 11 ( 3 ) : 355 – 366 .
  • Difede , J. and Hoffman , H. G. 2002 . Virtual reality exposure therapy for World Trade Center post-traumatic stress disorder: A case report. . CyberPsychology & Behavior , 5 ( 6 ) : 529 – 535 .
  • Farid , H . 2006 . Digital doctoring: How to tell the real from the fake. . Significance: Statistics Making Sense , 3 ( 4 ) : 162 – 166 .
  • Feigenson , N . 2006 . Too real? The future of virtual reality evidence. . Law & Policy , 28 ( 2 ) : 271 – 293 .
  • Flavell , J. H. 1985 . Cognitive Development, , 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice Hall .
  • Foley , M. A. and Johnson , M. K. 1985 . Confusions between memories for performed and imagined actions: A developmental comparison. . Child Development , 56 : 1145 – 1155 .
  • Foley , M. A. , Santini , C. and Sopasakis , M. 1989 . Discriminating between memomries: Evidence for children's spontaneous elaborations. . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 48 ( 1 ) : 146 – 169 .
  • Fox , J. and Bailenson , J. N. 2009 . Virtual self-modeling: The effects of vicarious reinforcement and identification on exercise behaviors. . Media Psychology , 12 : 1 – 25 .
  • Garry , M. , Manning , C. G. , Loftus , E. F. and Sherman , S. J. 1996 . Imagination inflation: Imagining a childhood event inflates confidence that it occurred. . Psychonomic Bulletin & Review , 3 ( 2 ) : 208 – 214 .
  • Garry , M. and Polaschek , D. 2000 . Imagination and memory. . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 9 ( 1 ) : 6 – 10 .
  • Garry , M. and Wade , K. A. 2005 . Actually, a picture is worth less than 45 words: Narratives produce more false memories than photographs do. . Psychonomic Bulletin & Review , 12 ( 2 ) : 359 – 366 .
  • Gillath , O. , McCall , C. , Shaver , P. R. and Blascovich , J. 2008 . What can virtual reality teach us about prosocial tendencies in real and virtual environments? . Media Psychology , 11 ( 2 ) : 259 – 282 .
  • Goff , L. M. and Roediger , H. L. III . 1998 . Imagination inflation for action events: Repeated imaginings lead to illusory recollections. . Memory & Cognition , 26 ( 1 ) : 20 – 33 .
  • Goodman , G. S. and Quas , J. A. 2008 . Repeated interviews and children's memory: It's more than just how many. . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 17 ( 6 ) : 386 – 390 .
  • Guadagno , R. E. , Blascovich , J. , Bailenson , J. N. and McCall , C. 2007 . Virtual humans and persuasion: The effects of agency and behavioral realism. . Media Psychology , 10 : 1 – 22 .
  • Henkin , R. I. and Levy , L. M. 2002 . Functional MRI of congenital hyposmia: Brain activation to odors and imagination of odors and tastes. . Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography , 26 ( 1 ) : 39 – 61 .
  • Hoffman , H. G. , Garcia-Palacios , A. , Patterson , D. R. , Jensen , M. , Furness , T. and Ammons , W. F. 2001 . The effectiveness of virtual reality for dental pain control: A case study. . CyberPsychology & Behavior , 4 ( 4 ) : 527 – 535 .
  • Hoffman , H. G. , Garcia-Palacios , A. , Thomas , A. K. and Schmidt , A. 2001 . Virtual reality monitoring: Phenomenal characteristics of real, virtual, and false memories. . CyberPsychology & Behavior , 4 ( 5 ) : 565 – 572 .
  • Hoffman , H. G. , Hullfish , K. C. and Houston , S. J. 1995 . “ Virtual-reality monitoring ” . In Paper presented at the meeting of the Virtual Reality Association International Symposium (VRAIS) Research Triangle, NC
  • Holden , M. K. 2005 . Virtual environments for motor rehabilitation: Review. . CyberPsychology & Behavior , 8 ( 3 ) : 187 – 211 .
  • Hyman , I. E. , Husband , T. H. and Billings , F. J. 1995 . False memories of childhood experiences. . Applied Cognitive Psychology , 9 ( 3 ) : 181 – 197 .
  • Hyman , I. E. and Billings , F. J. 1998 . Individual differences and the creation of false childhood memories. . Memory , 6 ( 1 ) : 1 – 20 .
  • Hyman , I. E. and Pentland , J. 1996 . The role of mental imagery in the creation of false childhood memories. . Journal of Memory and Language , 35 ( 2 ) : 101 – 117 .
  • Iwata , H. , Yano , H. , Uemura , T. and Moriya , T. 2004 . Food simulator: A haptic interface for biting. . Proc. IEEE Virtual Reality , : 51 – 57 .
  • Johnson , M. K. , Hashtroudi , S. and Lindsay , D. S. 1993 . Source monitoring. . Psychological Bulletin , 114 ( 1 ) : 3 – 28 .
  • Kim , T. and Biocca , F. 1997 . Telepresence via television: Two dimensions of telepresence may have different connections to memory and persuasion. . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication , 3 ( 2 ) Retrieved October 9, 2009, from http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol3/issue2/kim.html
  • Kleber , B. , Birbaumer , N. , Veit , R. , Trevorrow , T. and Lotze , M. 2007 . Overt and imagined singing of an Italian aria. . NeuroImage , 36 ( 3 ) : 889 – 900 .
  • Krijn , M. , Emmelkamp , P. M. G. , Olafsson , R. P. and Biemond , R. 2004 . Virtual reality exposure therapy of anxiety disorders: a review. . Clinical Psychology Review , 24 : 259 – 281 .
  • Lanier , J . 2001 . Virtually there. . Scientific American , 284 ( 4 ) : 66 – 75 .
  • Lee , W. and Magnenat-Thalman , N. 2000 . Fast head modeling for animation. . Image and Vision Computing , 18 ( 4 ) : 355 – 364 .
  • Levy , L. M. , Henkin , R. I. , Lin , C. S. , Finley , A. and Schellinger , D. 1999 . Taste memory induces brain activation as revealed by function MRI. . Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography , 23 ( 4 ) : 499 – 505 .
  • Lindsay , D. S. 2002 . “ Children's source monitoring. ” . In Children's Testimony Edited by: Westcott , H. L. , Davies , G. M. and Bull , R. H. C. 83 – 98 . Chichester, , UK : Wiley. .
  • Lindsay , D. S. and Johnson , M. K. 1987 . “ Reality monitoring and suggestibility: Children's ability to discriminate among memories from different sources. ” . In Children's Eyewitness Memory Edited by: Ceci , S. J. , Toglia , M. P. and Ross , D. F. 92 – 121 . New York : Springer-Verlag. .
  • Lindsay , D. S. , Johnson , M. K. and Kwon , P. 1991 . Developmental changes in memory source monitoring. . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 52 : 297 – 318 .
  • Loftus , E. F. 2002 . Memory faults and fixes. . Issues in Science and Technology , 18 ( 4 ) : 41 – 50 .
  • Loftus , E. F. and Pickrell , J. E. 1995 . The formation of false memories. . Psychiatric Annals , 25 ( 12 ) : 720
  • Loomis , J. M. 1992 . Distal attribution and presence. . Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments , 1 ( 1 ) : 113 – 119 .
  • Loomis , J. M. , Blascovich , J. J. and Beall , A. C. 1999 . Immersive virtual environment technology as a basic research tool in psychology. . Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers , 31 ( 4 ) : 557 – 564 .
  • Luft , A. R. , Skalej , M. , Stefanou , A. , Klose , U. and Voigt , K. 1998 . Comparing motion- and imagery-related activation in the human cerebellum: A function MRI study. . Human Brain Mapping , 6 ( 2 ) : 105 – 113 .
  • Mazzoni , G. , Loftus , E. F. and Kirsch , I. 2001 . Changing beliefs about implausible autobiographical events: A little plausibility goes a long way. . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied , 7 : 51 – 59 .
  • Mazzoni , G. G. and Memon , A. A. 2003 . Imagination can create false autobiographical memories. . Psychological Science , 14 ( 2 ) : 186 – 188 .
  • Miller , G . 2007 . The promise of parallel universes. . Science , 317 ( 5843 ) : 1341 – 1343 .
  • Nehaniv , C. L. 1999 . “ Narrative for artifacts: Transcending context and self (Technical Report FS-99–01) ” . In Proceedings of Narrative Intelligence 101 – 104 . North Falmouth, MA : American Association for Artificial Intelligence. .
  • Ogino , Y. , Nemoto , H. , Inui , K. , Saito , S. , Kakigi , R. and Goto , F. 2006 . Inner experience of pain: Imagination of pain while viewing images showing painful events forms subjects pain representation in human brain. . Cerebral Cortex , 17 ( 5 ) : 1139 – 1146 .
  • Pezdek , K. , Finger , K. and Hodge , D. 1997 . Planting false childhood memories. . Psychological Science , 8 : 437 – 441 .
  • Pezdek , K. and Hodge , D. 1999 . Planting false childhood memories in children: The role of event plausibility. . Child Development , 70 ( 4 ) : 887 – 895 .
  • Porter , S. , Yuille , J. C. and Lehman , D. R. 1999 . The nature of real, implanted, and fabricated memories for emotional childhood events: Implications for the recovered memory debate. . Law and Human Behavior , 23 ( 5 ) : 517 – 537 .
  • Pridmore , T. , Hilton , D. , Green , J. , Eastgate , R. and Cobb , S. September 2004 . “ Mixed reality environments in stroke rehabilitation: Interfaces across the real/virtual divide ” . In The 5th International Conference on Disability, Virtual Reality and Associated Technologies September , 11 – 18 . Oxford, , UK
  • Reeves , B. , Malone , T. W. and O'Driscoll , T. 2008 . Leadership's online lab. . Harvard Business Review , 86 ( 5 ) : 58 – 67 .
  • Rothbaum , B. O. , Hodges , L. , Smith , S. , Lee , J. H. and Price , L. 2000 . A controlled study of virtual reality exposure therapy for the fear of flying. . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 68 ( 6 ) : 1020 – 1026 .
  • Ruffman , T. , Rustin , C. , Garnham , W. and Parkin , A. J. 2001 . Source monitoring and false memories in children: Relation to certainty and executive functioning. . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 80 : 95 – 111 .
  • Shapiro , M. A. and McDonald , D. 1995 . “ I'm not a real doctor, but I play one in virtual reality: Implications of virtual reality for judgments about reality. ” . In Communication in the age of virtual reality Edited by: Biocca , F. and Biocca , M. R. 323 – 345 . Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum. .
  • Shapiro , M. A. and Lang , A. 1991 . Making television reality: unconscious processes in the construction of social reality. . Communication Research , 18 : 685 – 705 .
  • Strange , D. , Hayne , H. and Garry , M. 2008 . A photo, a suggestion, a false memory. . Applied Cognitive Psychology , 22 : 587 – 603 .
  • Strange , D. , Sutherland , R. and Garry , M. 2006 . Event plausibility does not determine children's false memories. . Memory , 14 ( 8 ) : 937 – 951 .
  • Sundar , S. S. 2008 . “ The MAIN model: A heuristic approach to understanding technology effects on credibility. ” . In Digital media, youth, and credibility (The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation series on digital media and learning) Edited by: Metzger , M. J. and Flanagin , A. J. 73 – 100 . Cambridge, MA : MIT Press. .
  • Symons , C. S. and Johnson , B. T. 1997 . The self-reference effect in memory: A meta-analysis . Psychological Bulletin , 121 ( 3 ) : 371 – 394 .
  • Thomas , A. K. and Loftus , E. F. 2002 . Creating bizarre false memories through imagination. . Memory & Cognition , 30 ( 3 ) : 423 – 431 .
  • Tortell , R. , Luigi , D. P. , Dozois , A. , Bouchard , S. , Morie , J. F. and Ilan , D. 2007 . The effects of scent and game play experience on memory of a virtual environment. . Virtual Reality , 11 ( 1 ) : 61 – 68 .
  • Van Dam , A. , Forsberg , A. S. , Laidlaw , D. H. , LaViola , J. J. and Simpson , R. M. 2000 . Immersive VR for scientific visualization: A progress report. . IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications , 20 ( 6 ) : 26 – 52 .
  • Vinayagamoorthy , V. , Steed , A. and Slater , M. 2005 . “ Building characters: Lessons drawn from virtual environments. Paper presented at the workshop ” . In Towards Social Mechanisms of Android Science: A CogSci 2005 Workshop July 25–26, 2005, Stressa, Italy.
  • Wade , K. A. , Garry , M. , Read , J. D. and Lindsay , D. S. 2002 . A picture is worth a thousand lies: Using false photographs to create false childhood memories. . Psychonomic Bulletin & Review , 9 ( 3 ) : 597 – 603 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.