Mass balance of two perennial snowfields: Niwot Ridge, Colorado, and the Ulaan Taiga, Mongolia

References

• Abu-Hamdeh, N. H., and R. C. Reeder. 2000. Soil thermal conductivity effects of density, moisture, salt concentration, and organic matter. Soil Science Society of America Journal 64:1285–90. doi:10.2136/sssaj2000.6441285x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andreas, E. L. 2002. Parameterizing scalar transfer over snow and ice: A review. Journal of Hydrometeorology 3 (4):417–32. doi:10.1175/1525-7541(2002)003<0417:PSTOSA>2.0.CO;2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baba, M. W., S. Gascoin, L. Jarlan, V. Simonneaux, and L. Hanich. 2018. Variations of the snow water equivalent in the Ourika Catchment (Morocco) over 2000–2018 using downscaled MERRA-2 data. Water 10 (9):1120. doi:10.3390/w10091120.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bales, R. C., N. P. Molotch, T. H. Painter, M. D. Dettinger, R. Rice, and J. Dozier. 2006. Mountain hydrology of the western United States. Water Resources Research 42 (8):W08432. doi:10.1029/2005WR004387.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Batbaatar, J., A. R. Gillespie, D. Fink, A. Matmon, and T. Fujioka. 2018. Asynchronous glaciations in arid continental climate. Quaternary Science Reviews 182:1–19. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.12.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broberg, L. 2021. Relative snowpack response to elevation, temperature and precipitation in the Crown of the Continent region of North America 1980-2013. PLoS ONE 16 (4):e0248736. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0248736.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brock, B. W., and N. S. Arnold. 2000. A spreadsheet-based (Microsoft Excel) point surface energy balance model for glacier and snowmelt studies. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 25 (6):649–58. doi:10.1002/1096-9837(200006)25:6<649::AID-ESP97>3.0.CO;2-U.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brock, B. W., I. C. Willis, and M. J. Sharp. 2006. Measurement and parameterization of aerodynamic roughness length variations at Haut Glacier d’Arolla, Switzerland. Journal of Glaciology 52 (177):281–97. doi:10.3189/172756506781828746.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burns, S. P., N. P. Molotch, M. W. Williams, J. F. Knowles, B. Seok, R. K. Monson, A. A. Turnipseed, and P. D. Blanken. 2014. Snow temperature changes within a seasonal snowpack and their relationship to turbulent fluxes of sensible and latent heat. Journal of Hydrometeorology 15 (1):117–42. doi:10.1175/JHM-D-13-026.1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caine, N. 1995. Snowpack influences on geomorphic processes in Green Lakes Valley, Colorado Front Range. Geographical Journal 161 (1):55–68. doi:10.2307/3059928.
   Google Scholar
• Chen, J., and A. Ohmura. 1990. Estimation of Alpine glacier water resources and their change since the 1870s. International Association of Hydrological Sciences 193.
   Google Scholar
• Clow, D. W. 2010. Changes in the timing of snowmelt and streamflow in Colorado: A response to recent warming. Journal of Climate 23 (9):1120–2306. doi:10.3390/w10091120.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clow, D. W., M. W. Williams, and P. F. Schuster. 2016. Increasing aeolian dust deposition to snowpacks in the Rocky Mountains inferred from snowpack, wet deposition, and aerosol chemistry. Atmospheric Environment 146:183–94. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.06.076.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cox, D. T. C., I. M. D. Maclean, A. S. Gardner, and K. J. Gaston. 2020. Global variation in diurnal asymmetry in temperature, cloud cover, specific humidity and precipitation and its association with leaf area index. Global Change Biology 00:1–13. doi:10.1111/gcb.15336.
   Google Scholar
• Dadic, R., R. Mott, M. Lehning, M. Carenzo, B. Anderson, and A. Mackintosh. 2013. Sensitivity of turbulent fluxes to wind speed over snow surfaces in different climatic settings. Advances in Water Resources 55:178–89. doi:10.1016/j.advwatres.2012.06.010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deems, J. S., T. H. Painter, J. J. Barsugli, J. Belnap, and B. Udall. 2013. Combined impacts of current and future dust deposition and regional warming on Colorado River Basin snow dynamics and hydrology. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences; Katlenburg-Lindau 17 (11):4401. doi:10.5194/hess-17-4401-2013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeWalle, D., and A. Rango. 2008. Principles of snow hydrology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511535673.
   Google Scholar
• Dohrenwend, J. C. 1984. Nivation landforms in the western Great Basin and their paleoclimatic significance. Quaternary Research 22 (3):275–88.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dove, A., J. Heldmann, C. P. McKay, and O. B. Toon. 2012. Physics of a thick seasonal snowpack with possible implications for snow algae. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 44 (1):36–49. doi:10.1657/1938-4246-44.1.36.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dozier, J., R. O. Green, A. W. Nolin, and T. H. Painter. 2009. Interpretation of snow properties from imaging spectrometry. Remote Sensing of Environment 113:S25–S37. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2007.07.029.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunn, R. J. H. 2020. Global Climate. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society Global Climate 101(8):S9–S128. Coauthors. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-20-0104.1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elder, K., J. Dozier, and J. E.-D.-M. Michaelsen. 1991. Snow accumulation and distribution in an alpine watershed. Water Resources Research 27 (7):1541–52.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Essery, R., S. Morin, Y. Lejeune, and C. B. Ménard. 2013. A comparison of 1701 snow models using observations from an alpine site. Advances in Water Resources 55:131–48. doi:10.1016/j.advwatres.2012.07.013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eyles, N., and L. Daurio. 2015. Little Ice Age debris lobes and nivation hollows inside Ubehebe Crater, Death Valley, California: Analog for Mars craters?. Geomorphology 245:231–42. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2015.05.029.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fassnacht, S. R., N. B. H. Venable, D. McGrath, and G. G. Patterson. 2018. Sub-seasonal snowpack trends in the Rocky Mountain National Park Area, Colorado, USA. Water 10:562. doi:10.3390/w10050562.
   Google Scholar
• Fountain, A. G., G. L. Dana, K. J. Lewis, B. H. Vaughn, and D. M. McKnight. 1998. Glaciers of the McMurdo Dry Valleys, southern Victoria Land, Antarctica. Ecosystem dynamics in a polar desert: The McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica, 65–75. Washington, DC: American Geophysical Union.
   Google Scholar
• Fountain, A. G., B. Glenn, and H. J. Basagic. 2017. The geography of glaciers and perennial snowfields in the American West. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 49 (3):391–410. doi:10.1657/AAAR0017-003.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fountain, A. G., T. H. Nylen, A. Monaghan, H. J. Basagic, and D. Bromwich. 2010. Snow in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica. International Journal of Climatology: A Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 30 (5):633–42. doi:10.1002/joc.1933
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fujita, K., K. Hiyama, H. Iida, and Y. Ageta. 2010. Self‐regulated fluctuations in the ablation of a snow patch over four decades. Water Resources Research 46 (11). doi:10.1029/2009WR008383.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Garwood, J. M., A. G. Fountain, K. T. Lindke, M. G. van Hattem, and H. J. Basagic. 2020. 20th Century retreat and recent drought accelerated extinction of mountain glaciers and perennial snowfields in the Trinity Alps, California. Northwest Science 94 (1):44–61. doi:10.3955/046.094.0104.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gascoin, S., S. Lhermitte, C. Kinnard, K. Bortels, and G. E. Liston. 2013. Wind effects on snow cover in Pascua-Lama, Dry Andes of Chile. Advances in Water Resources 55:25–39. doi:10.1016/j.advwatres.2012.11.013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gelaro, R., W. McCarty, M. J. Suárez, R. Todling, A. Molod, L. Takacs, C. A. Randles, A. Darmenov, M. G. Bosilovich, and R. Reichle. 2017. The Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications, Version 2 (MERRA-2). Advances in Water Resources 30:5419–54. Coauthors. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0758.1.
   Google Scholar
• Gleason, K. E., J. R. McConnell, M. M. Arienzo, N. Chellman, and W. M. Calvin. 2019. Four-fold increase in solar forcing on snow in western U.S. burned forests since 1999. Nature Communications 10 (1):2026. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-09935-y.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gleason, K. E., A. W. Nolin, and R. T. Roth. 2013. Charred forests increase snowmelt: Effects of burned woody debris and incoming solar radiation on snow ablation. Geophysical Research Letters 40 (17):4654–61. doi:10.1002/grl.50896.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goordial, J., A. Davila, D. Lacelle, W. Pollard, M. M. Marinova, C. W. Greer, J. DiRuggiero, C. P. McKay, and L. G. Whyte. 2016. Nearing the cold-arid limits of microbial life in permafrost of an upper dry valley, Antarctica. The ISME Journal 10 (7):1613–24. doi:10.1038/ismej.2015.239.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenland, D. 1989. The climate of Niwot Ridge, Front Range, Colorado, U.S.A. Arctic and Alpine Research 21 (4):380–91. doi:10.1080/00040851.1989.12002751.
   Google Scholar
• Hansen, W. R., B. J. Chronic, and J. Matelock, 1978, Climatography of the Front Range urban corridor and vicinity, Colorado, USGS Professional Paper 1019.
   Google Scholar
• Hasenkopf, C. A., D. P. Veghte, G. P. Schill, S. Lodoysamba, M. A. Freedman, and M. A. Tolbert. 2016. Ice nucleation, shape, and composition of aerosol particles in one of the most polluted cities in the world: Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Atmospheric Environment 139:222–29. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.05.037.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haugen, B. D., T. A. Scambos, W. T. Pfeffer, and R. S. Anderson. 2010. Twentieth-century changes in the thickness and extent of Arapaho Glacier, Front Range, Colorado. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 42 (2):198–209. doi:10.1657/1938-4246-42.2.198.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawkins, E., P. Ortega, E. Suckling, A. Schurer, G. Hegerl, P. Jones, M. Joshi, T. J. Osborn, V. Masson-Delmotte, J. Mignot, et al. 2017. Estimating changes in global temperature since the preindustrial period. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 98 (9):1841–56. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-16-0007.1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heindel, R. C., A. L. Putman, S. F. Murphy, D. A. Repert, and E.-L. S. Hinckley. 2020. Atmospheric dust deposition varies by season and elevation in the Colorado Front Range, USA. Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface 125:e2019JF005436. doi:10.1029/2019JF005436
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heldmann, J. L., M. Marinova, K. E. Williams, D. Lacelle, C. P. Mckay, A. Davila, W. Pollard, and D. T. Andersen. 2012. Formation and evolution of buried snowfield deposits in Pearse Valley, Antarctica, and implications for Mars. Antarctic Science 24 (3):299–316. doi:10.1017/S0954102011000903.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higuchi, K., T. Iozawa, Y. Fujii, and H. Kodama. 1980. Inventory of perennial snow patches in Central Japan. GeoJournal 4 (4):303–11. doi:10.1007/BF00219577.
   Google Scholar
• Hock, R., G. Rasul, C. Adler, B. Cáceres, S. Gruber, Y. Hirabayashi, M. Jackson, A. Kääb, S. Kang, S. Kutuzov, et al. 2019. Chapter 2: High Mountain Areas. IPCC Special Report on Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate. http://report.ipcc.ch/srocc/pdf/SROCC_FinalDraft_Chapter2.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Holtslag, A. A. M., and H. A. R. de Bruin. 1988. Applied modeling of the nighttime surface energy balance over land. Journal of Meteorological Research 27 (6):689–704. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1988)027<0689:AMOTNS>2.0.CO;2.
   Google Scholar
• Jennings, K. S., T. G. F. Kittel, and N. P. Molotch. 2018. Observations and simulations of the seasonal evolution of snowpack cold content and its relation to snowmelt and the snowpack energy budget. The Cryosphere 12 (5):1595–614. doi:10.5194/tc-12-1595-2018.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jennings, K. S., T. Kittel, and N. Molotch. 2019. Infilled climate data for C1, Saddle, and D1, 1990 - 2013, hourly. Environmental Data Initiative Dataset accessed 7/31/2020. doi:10.6073/pasta/1538ccf520d89c7a11c2c489d973b232.
   Google Scholar
• Jennings, K. S., and N. P. Molotch. 2020. Snowfall fraction, cold content, and energy balance changes drive differential response to simulated warming in an apline and subalpine snowpack. Frontiers in Earth Science 8:186. doi:10.3389/feart.2020.00186.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jennings, K. S., T. S. Winchell, B. Livneh, and N. P. Molotch. 2018. Spatial variation of the rain–snow temperature threshold across the Northern Hemisphere. Nature Communications 9(1):1148. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-03629-7.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jordan, R. E., E. L. Andreas, and A. P. Makshtas. 1999. Heat budget of snow-covered sea ice at North Pole 4. Journal of Geophysical Research 104 (C4):7785–806. doi:10.1029/1999JC900011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karl, T. R., G. Kukla, V. N. Razuvayev, M. J. Changery, R. G. Quayle, R. R. Heim, et al. 1991. Global warming: Evidence for asymmetric diurnal temperature change. Geophysical Research Letters 18: 2253–56. doi:10.1029/91GL02900.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lehning, M., P. Bartelt, B. Brown, T. Russi, U. Stöckli, and M. Zimmerli. 1999. SNOWFIELD model calculations for avalanche warning based upon a new network of weather and snow stations. Cold Regions Science and Technology 30 (1–3):145–57. doi:10.1016/S0165-232X(99)00022-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemke, P., J. Ren, R. B. Alley, I. Allison, J. Carrasco, G. Flato, Y. Fujii, G. Kaser, P. Mote, R. H. Thomas, and T. Zhang. 2007. Observations: Changes in snow, ice and frozen ground. In Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller, eds., 337–84. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Leopold, M., G. Lewis, D. Dethier, N. Caine, and M. W. Williams. 2015. Cryosphere: Ice on Niwot Ridge and in the Green Lakes Valley, Colorado Front Range. Plant Ecology and Diversity 8 (5–6):625–38. doi:10.1080/17550874.2014.992489.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, D., M. L. Wrzesien, M. Durand, J. Adam, and D. P. Lettenmaier. 2017. How much runoff originates as snow in the western United States, and how will that change in the future? Geophysical Research Letters 44 (12):6163–72. doi:10.1002/2017GL073551.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahowald, N. M., S. Kloster, S. Engelstaedter, J. K. Moore, S. Mukhopadhyay, J. R. McConnell, S. Albani, et al. 2010. Observed 20th century desert dust variability: Impact on climate and biogeochemistry. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 10:10875–93. doi:10.5194/acp-10-10875-2010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marks, D., and A. Winstral. 2001. Comparison of snow deposition, the snow cover energy balance, and snowmelt at two sites in a semiarid mountain basin. Journal of Hydrometeorology 2 (3):213–27. doi:10.1175/1525-7541(2001)002<0213:COSDTS>2.0.CO;2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKay, C. P. 2009. Snow recurrence sets the depth of dry permafrost at high elevations in the McMurdo Dry Valleys of Antarctica. Antarctic Science 21 (1):89. doi:10.1017/S0954102008001508.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKay, C. P., G. D. Clow, D. T. Andersen, and R. A. Wharton Jr. 1994. Light transmission and reflection in perennially ice-covered Lake Hoare, Antarctica. Journal of Geophysical Research 99 (C10):20427–44. doi:10.1029/94JC01414.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McVicar, T. R., M. L. Roderick, R. J. Donohue, L. T. Li, T. G. Van Niel, A. Thomas, J. Grieser, D. Jhajharia, Y. Himri, N. M. Mahowald, et al. 2012. Global review and synthesis of trends in observed terrestrial near-surface wind speeds: Implications for evaporation. Journal of Hydrology 416:182–205. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2011.10.024.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meador, W. E., and W. R. Weaver. 1980. Two-stream approximations to radiative transfer in planetary atmospheres: A unified description of existing methods and a new improvement. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 37 (3):630–43. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1980)037<0630:TSATRT>2.0.CO;2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mote, P. W. 2003. Trends in snow water equivalent in the Pacific Northwest and their climatic causes. Geophysical Research Letters 30 (12):1601. doi:10.1029/2003GL017258.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mote, P. W. 2006. Climate-driven variability and trends in mountain snowpack in western North America. Journal of Climate 19 (23):6209–20. doi:10.1175/JCLI3971.1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mott, R., L. Egli, T. Grünewald, N. Dawes, C. Manes, M. Bavay, and M. Lehning. 2011. Micrometeorological processes driving snow ablation in an Alpine catchment. The Cryosphere 5 (4):1083–98. doi:10.5194/tc-5-1083-2011.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mott, R., C. Gromke, T. Grünewald, and M. Lehning. 2013. Relative importance of advective heat transport and boundary layer decoupling in the melt dynamics of a patchy snow cover. Advances in Water Resources 55:88–97. doi:10.1016/j.advwatres.2012.03.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mott, R., V. Vionnet, and T. Grünewald. 2018. The seasonal snow cover dynamics: Review on wind-driven coupling processes. Frontiers in Earth Science 6:197. doi:10.3389/feart.2018.00197.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munro, D. S. 1989. Surface roughness and bulk heat transfer on a glacier: Comparison with eddy correlation. Journal of Glaciology 35 (121):343–48. doi:10.1017/S0022143000009266.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy, S. F. 2006. State of the Watershed: Water Quality of Boulder Creek, 34. Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1284.
   Google Scholar
• Nandintsetseg, B., J. S. Greene, and C. E. Goulden. 2007. Trends in extreme daily precipitation and temperature near Lake Hövsgöl, Mongolia. International Journal of Climatology 27 (3):341–47. doi:10.1002/joc.1404.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nayak, A., D. Marks, D. G. Chandler, and M. Seyfried. 2010. Long-term snow, climate, and streamflow trends at the Reynolds Creek Experimental Watershed, Owyhee Mountains, Idaho, United States. Water Resources Research 46:W06519. doi:10.1029/2008WR007525.
   Google Scholar
• Neff, J., A. Ballantyne, G. Farmer, N. M. Mahowald, J. L. Conroy, C. C. Landry, J. T. Overpeck, T. H. Painter, C. R. Lawrence, and R. L. Reynolds, et al. 2008. Increasing eolian dust deposition in the western United States linked to human activity. Nature Geoscience 1(3):189–95. doi:10.1038/ngeo133.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ødegård, R. S., A. Nesje, K. Isaksen, M. A. Liss, T. Eiken, M. Schwikowski, and C. Uglietti. 2017. Climate change threatens archaeologically significant ice patches: Insights into their age, internal structure, mass balance and climate sensitivity. The Cryosphere 11 (1):17. doi:10.5194/tc-11-17-2017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Painter, T. H., A. P. Barrett, C. C. Landry, J. C. Neff, M. P. Cassidy, C. R. Lawrence, K. E. McBride, and G. L. Farmer. 2007. Impact of disturbed desert soils on duration of mountain snow cover. Geophysical Research Letters 34 (12):L12502. doi:10.1029/2007GL030284.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Painter, T. H., M. G. Flanner, G. Kaser, B. Marzeion, R. A. VanCuren, and W. Abdalati. 2013. End of the Little Ice Age in the Alps forced by industrial black carbon. PNAS 110 (38):15216–21. doi:10.1073/pnas.1302570110.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Painter, T. H., S. S. McKenzie, D. J. S, B. W. Tyler, and D. Jeff. 2017. Variation in rising limb of Colorado River snowmelt runoff hydrograph controlled by dust radiative forcing in snow. Geophysical Research Letters 45 (2):797–808. doi:10.1002/2017GL075826.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Painter, T. H., S. M. Skiles, J. S. Deems, A. C. Bryant, and C. C. Landry. 2012. Dust radiative forcing in snow of the Upper Colorado River Basin: 1. A 6 year record of energy balance, radiation, and dust concentrations. Water Resources Research 48 (7):W07521. doi:10.1029/2012WR011985.
   Google Scholar
• Paterson, W. S. B. 1994. The Physics of Glaciers. 481. 3rd ed. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
   Google Scholar
• Patterson, E. M., D. A. Gillette, and B. H. Stockton. 1977. Complex index of refraction between 300 and 700 nm for Saharan aerosols. Journal of Geophysical Research 82 (21):3153–60. doi:10.1029/JC082i021p03153.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pierce, D. W., T. P. Barnett, H. G. Hidalgo, T. Das, C. Bonfils, B. D. Santer, G. Bala, M. D. Dettinger, D. R. Cayan, A. Mirin, et al. 2008. Attribution of declining western U.S. snowpack to human effects. Journal of Climate 21 (23):6425–44. doi:10.1175/2008JCLI2405.1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pilø, L. H., J. H. Barrett, T. Eiken, E. Finstad, S. Grønning, J. R. Post-Melbye, A. Nesje, et al. 2021. Interpreting archaeological site-formation processes at a mountain ice patch: A case study from Langfonne, Norway. The Holocene 31 (3):469–82. doi:10.1177/0959683620972775.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pomeroy, J. W., and E. Brun. 2001. Snow Ecology: An Interdisciplinary Examination of Snow‐covered Ecosystems. In eds. H. G. Jones, J. W. Pomeroy, D. A. Walker, and R. Hoham, 378. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rangwala, I., and J. R. Miller. 2012. Climate change in mountains: A review of elevation-dependent warming and its possible causes. Climatic Change 114 (3–4):527–47. doi:10.1007/s10584-012-0419-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reichle, R. H., C. S. Draper, Q. Liu, M. Girotto, S. P. P. Mahanama, R. D. Koster, and G. J. M. De Lannoy. 2017. Assessment of MERRA-2 land surface hydrology estimates. Journal of Climate 30 (8):2937–60. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0720.1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rupper, S., and G. Roe. 2008. Glacier changes and regional climate: A mass and energy balance approach. Journal of Climate 21 (20):5384–401. doi:10.1175/2008JCLI2219.1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schueler, T. 2000. The Compaction of Urban Soils: Technical Note #107 from Watershed Protection Techniques, Vol. 3, 661–65. Ellicott City, MD: Center for Watershed Protection.
   Google Scholar
• Schwerdtfeger, P. 1963. Theoretical derivation of the thermal conductivity and diffusivity of snow. International Association of Hydrological Sciences 61:75–81.
   Google Scholar
• Sexstone, G. A., D. W. Clow, S. R. Fassnacht, G. E. Liston, C. A. Hiemstra, J. F. Knowles, and C. A. Penn. 2018. Snow sublimation in mountain environments and its sensitivity to forest disturbance and climate warming. Water Resources Research 542 (2):1191–211. doi:10.1002/2017WR021172.
   Google Scholar
• Sexstone, G. A., D. W. Clow, D. I. Stannard, and S. R. Fassnacht, 2016. Comparison of methods for quantifying surface sublimation over seasonally snow-covered terrain. Hydrological Processes 30:3373–89. doi:10.1002/hyp.10864.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherwood, S., M. J. Webb, J. D. Annan, K. C. Armour, P. M. Forster, J. C. Hargreaves, G. Hegerl, S. A. Klein, K. D. Marvel, E. J. Rohling, et al. 2020. An assessment of Earth’s climate sensitivity using multiple lines of evidence. Reviews of Geophysics 58 (4):e2019RG000678. doi:10.1029/2019RG000678.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skiles, S. M., M. Flanner, J. M. Cook, M. Dumont, and T. H. Painter. 2018. Radiative forcing by light-absorbing particles in snow. Nature Climate Change 8 (11):964. doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0296-5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skiles, S. M., and T. Painter. 2017. Daily evolution in dust and black carbon content, snow grain size, and snow albedo during snowmelt, Rocky Mountains, Colorado. Journal of Glaciology 63 (237):118–32. doi:10.1017/jog.2016.125.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skiles, S. M., T. H. Painter, J. S. Deems, A. C. Bryant, and C. C. Landry, 2012. Dust radiative forcing in snow of the Upper Colorado River Basin: 2. Interannual variability in radiative forcing and snowmelt rates. Water Resources Research 48. doi: 10.1029/2012WR011986.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart, I. T. 2009. Changes in snowpack and snowmelt runoff for key mountain regions. Hydrological Processes 23 (1):78–94. doi:10.1002/hyp.7128.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stewart, I. T., D. R. Cayan, and M. D. Dettinger. 2005. Changes toward earlier streamflow timing across western North America. Journal of Climate 18 (8):1136–55. doi:10.1175/JCLI3321.1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stigter, E. E., M. Litt, J. F. Steiner, P. N. J. Bonekamp, J. M. Shea, M. F. P. Bierkens, and W. W. Immerzeel. 2018. The importance of snow sublimation on a Himalayan Glacier. Frontiers in Earth Science 6:108. doi:10.3389/feart.2018.00108.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, W., J. K. Clark, B. Reichhardt, G. W. L. Hodgins, J. Bayarsaikhan, O. Batchuluun, J. Whitworth, M. Nansalmaa, C. M. Lee, E. J. Dixon, et al. 2019. Investigating reindeer pastoralism and exploitation of high mountain zones in northern Mongolia through ice patch archaeology. PLoS ONE 14 (11):e0224741. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0224741.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorn, C. E. 1976. Quantitative evaluation of nivation in the Colorado Front Range. Geological Society of America Bulletin 87 (8):1169–78. Accessed August 26, 2020. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1976)87<1169:QEONIT>2.0.CO;2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toon, O. B., C. P. McKay, T. P. Ackerman, and K. Santhanam. 1989. Rapid calculation of radiative heating rates and photodissociation rates in inhomogeneous multiple scattering atmospheres. Journal of Geophysical Research 94:16287–301. doi:10.1029/JD094iD13p16287.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• United Nations. 2018. Third National Communication of Mongolia, 416pp. https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/SubmissionsStaging/NationalReports/Documents/06593841_Mongolia-NC3-2-Mongolia%20TNC%202018%20print%20version.pdf
   Google Scholar
• United Nations: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. n. d. Initial National Communication: Mongolia [Internet]. https://unfccc.int/documents/125493
   Google Scholar
• Veettil, B. K., and U. Kamp. 2019. Global Disappearance of Tropical Mountain Glaciers: Observations, Causes, and Challenges. Geosciences 9 (5):196. Accessed August 26, 2020. doi:10.3390/geosciences9050196.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vuille, M., B. Francou, P. Wagnon, I. Juen, G. Kaser, B. G. Mark, and R. S. Bradley. 2008. Climate change and tropical Andean glaciers: Past, present and future. Earth-science Reviews 89 (3–4):79–96. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2008.04.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagnon, P., J.-E. Sicart, E. Berthier, and J.-P. Chazarin. 2003. Wintertime high-altitude surface energy balance of a Bolivian glacier, Illimani, 6340 m above sea level. Journal of Geophysical Research 108 (D6):4177.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waldrop, H. A. 1964. Arapaho Glacier, a sixty-year record, University of Colorado Studies. Series in Geology 3:1–37.
   Google Scholar
• Warren, S. G. 1984. Optical constants of ice from the ultraviolet to the microwave. Applied Optics 23 (8):1206–25. doi:10.1364/AO.23.001206.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, M., J. Morse, and Niwot Ridge LTER. 2020. Snow cover profile data for Niwot Ridge and Green Lakes Valley, 1993 - ongoing. ver 15. Environmental Data Initiative Accessed 2020-10-22. doi:10.6073/pasta/a5fca9d02a4a6a0744cc0d0ffccacd09.
   Google Scholar
• Williams, K. E., O. Toon, J. Heldmann, C. McKay, and M. Mellon. 2008. Stability of mid-latitude snowfields on Mars. Icarus 196 (2):565–77. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2008.03.017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winstral, A., K. Elder, and R. E. Davis. 2002. Spatial snow modeling of wind-redistributed snow using terrain-based parameters. Journal of Hydrometeorology 3 (5):524–38. doi:10.1175/1525-7541(2002)003<0524:SSMOWR>2.0.CO;2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiscombe, W. J., and S. G. Warren. 1980. A model for the spectral albedo of snow. I: Pure snow. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 37 (12):2712–273. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1980)037<2712:AMFTSA>2.0.CO;2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar