Active layer variability and change in the Mackenzie Valley, Northwest Territories between 1991-2014: An ecoregional assessment

References

• Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme. 2017. Snow, water, ice and permafrost in the Arctic (SWIPA) 2017, xiv + 269. Oslo, Norway: Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP).
   Google Scholar
• Aylsworth, J., I. Kettles, L. Dyke, and G. Brooks. 2000. Distribution of peatlands. In The physical environment of the Mackenzie Valley, Northwest Territories: A base line for the assessment of environmental change, Geological Survey of Canada Bulletin, vol. 547, 49–55.
   Google Scholar
• Aylsworth, J., M. Burgess, D. Desrochers, A. Duk-Rodkin, T. Robertson, and J. Traynor. 2000. Surficial geology, subsurface materials, and thaw sensitivity of sediments. In The physical environment of the Mackenzie Valley, Northwest Territories: A base line for the assessment of environmental change, vol. 547, 41–48.
   Google Scholar
• Bockheim, J. G., and K. J. Hall. 2002. Permafrost, active-layer dynamics and periglacial environments of continental Antarctica: Periglacial and permafrost research in the Southern Hemisphere. South African Journal of Science 98 (1–2):82–90.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonnaventure, P. P., A. G. Lewkowicz, and C. Hillaire-Marcel. 2008. Mountain permafrost probability mapping using the BTS method in two climatically dissimilar locations, northwest Canada. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 45 (4):443–55. doi:10.1139/E08-013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonnaventure, P. P., and S. F. Lamoureux. 2013. The active layer: A conceptual review of monitoring, modelling techniques and changes in a warming climate. Progress in Physical Geography 37 (3):352–76. doi:10.1177/0309133313478314.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonnaventure, P. P., S. F. Lamoureux, and E. A. Favaro. 2017. Over‐winter channel bed temperature regimes generated by contrasting snow accumulation in a high Arctic River. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 28 (1):339–46. doi:10.1002/ppp.1902.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burn, C. R., and C. A. S. Smith. 1988. Observations of the “Thermal Offset” in near-surface mean annual ground temperatures at several sites near Mayo, Yukon Territory, Canada. Arctic 41 (2):99–104. doi:10.14430/arctic1700.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chapin, F. S., M. Sturm, M. C. Serreze, J. P. McFadden, J. R. Key, A. H. Lloyd, J. M. Welker, T. S. Rupp, A. H. Lynch, and J. P. Schimel. 2005. Role of land-surface changes in Arctic summer warming. Science 310 (5748):657–60. doi:10.1126/science.1117368.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duchesne, C., D. W. Riseborough, and S. L. Smith. 2014. Air and near surface ground temperatures, indices, and summary statistics from 1993 to 2012 for the Mackenzie Valley Corridor, Northwest Territories. Natural Resources Canada. ( Open File 7392). https://doi.org/10.4095/294835
   Google Scholar
• Duchesne, C., S. L. Smith, M. Ednie, and P. P. Bonnaventure. 2015. Active layer variability and change in the Mackenzie Valley, Northwest Territories. Paper presented at the Proceeding 68th Canadian Geotechnical Conference and Seventh Canadian Conference on Permafrost (GEOQuébec 2015), Quèbec City, Quèbec.
   Google Scholar
• Ecoregions Working Group. 1989. Ecoclimatic regions of Canada, first approximation. Ecological Land Classification Series No. 23, Environment Canada, Canadian Wildlife Service, Sustainable Development Branch.
   Google Scholar
• Ecosystem Classification Group. 2007. Ecological regions of the Northwest Territories – Taiga Plains. Yellowknife, NT: Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Government of the Northwest Territories. viii + 173 pp. + folded insert map.
   Google Scholar
• Ecosystem Classification Group. 2010. Ecological regions of the Northwest Territories – Cordillera. Yellowknife, NT: Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Government of the Northwest Territories. x + 245 pp. + insert map.
   Google Scholar
• Ecosystem Classification Group. 2012. Ecological regions of the Northwest Territories – Southern Arctic. Yellowknife, NT: Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Government of the Northwest Territories. x + 170 pp. + insert map.
   Google Scholar
• Environment Canada-historical data - climate - environment and climate change Canada. 2017. Government of Canada. https://climate.weather.gc.ca/historical_data/search_historic_data_e.html
   Google Scholar
• Evans, B. M., D. A. Walker, C. S. Benson, E. A. Nordstrand, and G. W. Petersen. 1989. Spatial interrelationships between terrain, snow distribution and vegetation patterns at an Arctic foothills site in Alaska. Ecography 12 (3):270–78. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0587.1989.tb00846.x.
   Google Scholar
• Fisher, J. P., C. Estop-Aragonés, A. Thierry, D. J. Charman, S. A. Wolfe, I. P. Hartley, J. B. Murton, M. Williams, and G. K. Phoenix. 2016. The influence of vegetation and soil characteristics on active-layer thickness of permafrost soils in boreal forest. Global Change Biology 22:3127–40. doi:10.1111/gcb.13248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garibaldi, M. C., P. P. Bonnaventure, and S. F. Lamoureux. 2021. Utilizing the TTOP model to understand spatial permafrost temperature variability in a high Arctic landscape, Cape Bounty, Nunavut, Canada. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 32 (1):19–34. doi:10.1002/ppp.2086.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gold, L. W. 1963. Influence of the snow cover on the average annual ground temperature at Ottawa. Canada: Division of Building Research, National Research Council.
   Google Scholar
• Goodrich, L. 1982. The influence of snow cover on the ground thermal regime. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 19 (4):421–32. doi:10.1139/t82-047.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grünberg, I., E. J. Wilcox, S. Zwieback, P. Marsh, and J. Boike. 2020. Linking tundra vegetation, snow, soil temperature, and permafrost. Biogeosciences 17:4261–79. doi:10.5194/bg-17-4261-2020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris, S. A. 2002. Causes and consequences of rapid thermokarst development in permafrost or glacial terrain. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 13 (3):237–42. doi:10.1002/ppp.419.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heginbottom, J. A., M.-A. Dubreuil, and P. A. Harker. 1995. Canada – Permafrost; National Atlas of Canada. 5th ed. Ottawa: Geomatics Canada, National Atlas Information Service, and Geological Survey of Canada. Plate 2.1 (MCR 4177).
   Google Scholar
• Hinkel, K. M., F. Paetzold, F. E. Nelson, and J. G. Bockheim. 2001. Patterns of soil temperature and moisture in the active layer and upper permafrost at Barrow, Alaska: 1993–1999. Global and Planetary Change 29 (3):293–309. doi:10.1016/S0921-8181(01)00096-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinkel, K. M., and F. E. Nelson. 2003. Spatial and temporal patterns of active layer thickness at Circumpolar Active Layer Monitoring (CALM) sites in northern Alaska, 1995–2000. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres (1984–2012) 108(D2. doi:10.1029/2001JD000927.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holloway, J. E., and A. G. Lewkowicz. 2020. Half a century of discontinuous permafrost persistence and degradation in western Canada. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 31 (1):85–96. doi:10.1002/ppp.2017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holloway, J. E., A. G. Lewkowicz, T. A. Douglas, X. Li, M. R. Turetsky, J. L. Baltzer, and H. Jin. 2020. Impact of wildfire on permafrost landscapes: A review of recent advances and future prospects. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 31 (3):371–82. doi:10.1002/ppp.2048.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klene, A. E., F. E. Nelson, N. I. Shiklomanov, and K. M. Hinkel. 2001. The N-factor in natural landscapes: Variability of air and soil-surface temperatures, Kuparuk River Basin, Alaska, U.S.A. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 33 (2):140–48. doi:10.2307/1552214.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ling, F., and T. Zhang. 2003. Impact of the timing and duration of seasonal snow cover on the active layer and permafrost in the Alaskan Arctic. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 14 (2):141–50. doi:10.1007/s11629-013-2893-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loranty, M. M., B. W. Abbott, D. Blok, T. A. Douglas, H. E. Epstein, B. C. Forbes, B. M. Jones, A. L. Kholodov, H. Kropp, A. Malhotra, et al. 2018. Reviews and syntheses: Changing ecosystem influences on soil thermal regimes in northern high-latitude permafrost regions. Biogeosciences 15:5287–313. doi:10.5194/bg-15-5287-2018.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mackay, J. R. 1973. A frost tube for the determination of freezing in the active layer above permafrost. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 10 (3):392–96. doi:10.1139/t73-033.
   Google Scholar
• Mazhitova, G., G. Malkova, O. Chestnykh, D. Zamolodchikov. 2004. Active layer spatial and temporal variability at European Russian Circumpolar-Active-Layer-Monitoring (CALM) sites. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 15: 123–39. doi:10.1002/ppp.484.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morse, P. D., C. R. Burn, and S. V. Kokelj. 2012. Influence of snow on near-surface ground temperatures in upland and alluvial environments of the outer Mackenzie Delta, Northwest Territories. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 49 (8):895–913. doi:10.1139/e2012-012.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nixon, F. M., and A. Taylor. 1994. Active layer monitoring in natural environments, Mackenzie Valley, Northwest Territories. Current Research, Geological Survey of Canada:27–34.
   Google Scholar
• Nixon, F. M., and A. E. Taylor. 1998. Regional active layer monitoring across the sporadic, discontinuous and continuous permafrost zones, Mackenzie Valley, northwestern Canada. In Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Permafrost, 815–20. Québec: Centre d’Etudes Nordiques, Université Laval.
   Google Scholar
• O’Donnell, J. A., V. E. Romanovsky, J. W. Harden, and A. D. McGuire. 2009. The effect of moisture content on the thermal conductivity of moss and organic soil horizons from black spruce ecosystems in interior Alaska. Soil Science 174 (12):646–51. doi:10.1097/SS.0b013e3181c4a7f8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Neill, H. B., S. L. Smith, C. Duchesne. 2019. Long-term permafrost degradation and thermokarst subsidence in the Mackenzie Delta area indicated by thaw tube measurements. In Cold regions engineering 2019, Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Cold Regions Engineeringand the 8th Canadian Permafrost Conference, ed. J.-P. Bilodeau, D. F. Nadeau, D. Fortier, and D. Conciatori, 643–51. Quebec, Quebec: American Society of Civil Engineers.
   Google Scholar
• O’Neill, H. B., S. A. Wolfe, and C. Duchesne. 2019. New ground ice maps for Canada using a paleogeographic modelling approach. The Cryosphere 13 (3):753–73. doi:10.5194/tc-13-753-2019.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Obu, J., S. Westermann, A. Bartsch, N. Berdnikov, H. H. Christiansen, A. Dashtseren, R. Delaloye, et al. 2019. Northern Hemisphere permafrost map based on TTOP modelling for 2000–2016 at 1 km2 scale. Earth-Science Reviews 193:299–316. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.04.023.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Palmer, M., C. Burn, and S. Kokelj. 2012. Factors influencing permafrost temperatures across tree line in the uplands east of the Mackenzie Delta, 2004–2010. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 49 (8):877–94. doi:10.1139/e2012-002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• RStudio Team. 2020. RStudio: Integrated Development for R. Boston, MA: RStudio, PBC. http://www.rstudio.com/
   Google Scholar
• Shiklomanov, N. I., and F. E. Nelson. 2002. Active-layer mapping at regional scales: A 13-year spatial time series for the Kuparuk region, north-central Alaska. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 13:219–30. doi:10.1002/ppp.425.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shiklomanov, N. I., D. A. Streletskiy, F. E. Nelson, R. D. Hollister, V. E. Romanovsky, C. E. Tweedie, J. G. Bockheim, and J. Brown. 2010. Decadal variations of active-layer thickness in moisture-controlled landscapes, Barrow, Alaska. Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences 115 (G4). doi:10.1029/2009JG001248.
   Google Scholar
• Shur, Y. L., K. M. Hinkel, and F. E. Nelson. 2005. The transient layer: Implications for geocryology and climate‐change science. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 16 (1):5–17. doi:10.1002/ppp.518.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shur, Y. L., and M. T. Jorgenson. 2007. Patterns of permafrost formation and degradation in relation to climate and ecosystems. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 18 (1):7–19. doi:10.1002/ppp.582.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, M. W., and D. W. Riseborough. 1996. Permafrost monitoring and detection of climate change. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 7 (4):301–09. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1530(199610)7:4<301::aid-ppp231>3.0.co;2-r.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, S. L., M. Burgess, and F. Nixon. 2001. Response of active-layer and permafrost temperatures to warming during 1998 in the Mackenzie Delta, Northwest Territories and at Canadian Forces Station Alert and Baker Lake, Nunavut. Natural Resources Canada, Geological Survey of Canada. doi:10.4095/212685.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, M. W., and D. W. Riseborough. 2002. Climate and the limits of permafrost: A zonal analysis. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 13 (1):1–15. doi:10.1002/ppp.410.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, S. L., S. A. Wolfe, D. W. Riseborough, and F. M. Nixon. 2009. Active‐layer characteristics and summer climatic indices, Mackenzie Valley, Northwest Territories, Canada. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 20 (2):201–20. doi:10.1002/ppp.651.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, S. L., D. W. Riseborough, F. M. Nixon, J. Chartrand, C. Duchesne, and M. Ednie. 2009. Data for Geological Survey of Canada active layer monitoring sites in the Mackenzie Valley, N.W.T., Geological Survey of Canada. Open File 6287, 100. 1 CD-ROM. doi:10.4095/248197.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, S. L., D. W. Riseborough, and P. P. Bonnaventure. 2015. Eighteen year record of forest fire effects on ground thermal regimes and permafrost in the central Mackenzie Valley, NWT, Canada. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 26 (4):289–303. doi:10.1002/ppp.1849.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, S. L., D. W. Riseborough, P. P. Bonnaventure, and C. Duchesne. 2016. An ecoregional assessment of freezing season air and ground surface temperature in the Mackenzie Valley corridor, NWT, Canada. Cold Regions Science and Technology 125 (Supplement C):152–61. doi:10.1016/j.coldregions.2016.02.007.
   Google Scholar
• Sturm, M., J. Holmgren, J. P. McFadden, G. E. Liston, F. S. Chapin III, and C. H. Racine. 2001. Snow–shrub interactions in Arctic tundra: A hypothesis with climatic implications. Journal of Climate 14 (3):336–44. doi:10.1175/1520-0442(2001)014<0336:SSIIAT>2.0.CO;2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarnocai, C., F. Mark Nixon, and L. Kutny. 2004. Circumpolar-Active-Layer-Monitoring (CALM) sites in the Mackenzie Valley, northwestern Canada. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 15 (2):141–53. doi:10.1002/ppp.490.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, T., A. Hamann, D. Spittlehouse, C. Carroll, and I. Álvarez. 2016. Locally downscaled and spatially customizable climate data for historical and future periods for North America. PLoS ONE 11 (6):e0156720. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0156720.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Way, R. G., and C. M. Lapalme. 2021. Does tall vegetation warm or cool the ground surface? Constraining the ground thermal impacts of upright vegetation in northern environments. Environmental Research Letters 16 (5):54077. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/abef31.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilcox, E. J., D. Keim, T. de Jong, B. Walker, O. Sonnentag, A. E. Sniderhan, P. Mann, and P. Marsh. 2019. Tundra shrub expansion may amplify permafrost thaw by advancing snowmelt timing. Arctic Science 5:202–17. doi:10.1139/as-2018-0028.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, D., and M. K. Woo. 1999. Representativeness of local snow data for large scale hydrologic investigations. Hydrological Processes 13 (12‐13):1977–88. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1085(199909)13:12/13<1977::AID-HYP894>3.0.CO;2-B.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yi, Y., J. S. Kimball, R. H. Chen, M. Moghaddam, R. H. Reichle, U. Mishra, D. Zona, and W. C. Oechel. 2018. Characterizing permafrost active layer dynamics and sensitivity to landscape spatial heterogeneity in Alaska. The Cryosphere 12:145–61. doi:10.5194/tc-12-145-2018.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, K. L., M.-K. Woo, and S. A. Edlund. 1997. Influence of local topography, soils, and vegetation on microclimate and hydrology at a high Arctic site, Ellesmere Island, Canada. Arctic and Alpine Research 29 (3):270–84. doi:10.2307/1552141.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, T. 2005. Influence of the seasonal snow cover on the ground thermal regime: An overview. Reviews of Geophysics 43 (4):n/a–n/a. doi:10.1029/2004RG000157.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, T., O. W. Frauenfeld, M. C. Serreze, A. Etringer, C. Oelke, J. McCreight, R. G. Barry, D. Gilichinsky, D. Yang, H. Ye, et al. 2005. Spatial and temporal variability in active layer thickness over the Russian Arctic drainage basin. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 110(D16). doi:10.1029/2004JD005642.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar