Defining Elemental Imitation Mechanisms: A Comparison of Cognitive and Motor-Spatial Imitation Learning Across Object- and Computer-Based Tasks

REFERENCES

• Ayoun, C. (1998). Maternal responsiveness and search for hidden objects and contingency learning by infants. Early Development and Parenting, 7, 61–72. doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-0917(199806)7:2<61::aid-edp165>3.3.co;2-i
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Barr, R. (2013). Memory constraints on infant learning from picture books, television, and touchscreens. Child Development Perspectives, 7, 205–210. doi:10.1111/cdep.12041
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barr, R., & Hayne, H. (2000). Age-related changes in imitation: Implications for memory development (Vol. 1). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Bates, E., Thal, D., Whitesell, K., Fenson, L., & Oakes, L. (1989). Integrating language and gesture in infancy. Developmental Psychology, 25, 1004–1019. doi:10.1037//0012-1649.25.6.1004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bauer, P. J. (1992). Holding it all together: How enabling relations facilitate young children’s event recall. Cognitive Development, 7, 1–28. doi:10.1016/0885-2014(92)90002-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bauer, P. J. (2007). Remembering the times of our lives: Memory in infancy and beyond. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Bauer, P. J., & Mandler, J. M. (1989). One thing follows another: Effects of temporal structure on 1- to 2-year olds’ recall of events. Developmental Psychology, 25, 197–203. doi:10.1037//0012-1649.25.2.197
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bauer, P. J., & Zelazo, P. D. (2013). IX. NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (CB): Summary, conclusions, and implications for cognitive development. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 78, 133–146. doi:10.1111/mono.12039
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bekkering, H., Wohlschlager, A., & Gattis, M. (2000). Imitation of gestures in children is goal-directed. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 53, 153–164. doi:10.1080/713755872
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Development, 81, 1641–1660. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01499.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boutin, A., Fries, U., Panzer, S., Shea, C. H., & Blandin, Y. (2010). Role of action observation and action in sequence learning and coding. Acta Psychologica, 135, 240–251. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2010.07.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boutin, A., Panzer, S., Salesse, R. N., & Blandin, Y. (2012). Testing promotes effector transfer. Acta Psychologica, 141, 400–407. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.09.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chartrand, T. L., & Bargh, J. A. (1999). The chameleon effect: The perception–behavior link and social interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 893–910. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.76.6.893
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook, R., Johnston, A., & Heyes, C. (2013). Facial self-imitation: Objective measurement reveals no improvement without visual feedback. Psychological Science, 24, 93–98. doi:10.1177/0956797612452568
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cuevas, K., Cannon, E. N., Yoo, K., & Fox, N. A. (2014). The infant EEG Mu rhythm: Methodological considerations and best practices. Developmental Review, 34(1), 26–43. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2013.12.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dickerson, K., Gerhardstein, P., Zack, E., & Barr, R. (2013). Age-related changes in learning across early childhood: A new imitation task. Developmental Psychobiology, 55, 719–732. doi:10.1002/dev.21068
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D’Souza, D., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2011). When modularization fails to occur: A developmental perspective. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 28, 276–287. doi:10.1080/02643294.2011.614939
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eriksen, B. A., & Eriksen, C. W. (1974). Effects of noise letters upon identification of a target letter in a non-search task. Perception and Psychophysics, 16, 143–149. doi:10.3758/bf03203267
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Garon, N., Bryson, S. E., & Smith, I. M. (2008). Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 31–60. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.31
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerhardstein, P., & Rovee-Collier, C. (2002). The development of visual search in infants and very young children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 81, 194–215. doi:10.1006/jecp.2001.2649
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldenberg, G. (2009). Apraxia and the parietal lobes. Neuropsychologia, 47, 1449–1459. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.07.014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grezes, J., & Decety, J. (2001). Functional anatomy of execution, mental simulation, observation, and verb generation of actions: A meta-analysis. Human Brain Mapping, 12, 1–19. doi:10.1002/1097-0193(200101)12:1<1::aid-hbm10>3.0.co;2-v
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heider, F., & Simmel, M. (1944). An experimental study of apparent behavior. American Journal of Psychology, 57, 243–259. doi:10.2307/1416950
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herbert, J., & Hayne, H. (2000). The ontogeny of long-term retention during the second year of life. Developmental Science, 3, 50–56. doi:10.1111/1467-7687.00099
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heyes, C. (2011). Automatic imitation. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 463–483. doi:10.1037/a0022288
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heyes, C. (2012). What’s social about social learning? Journal of Comparative Psychology, 126, 193–202. doi:10.1037/a0025180
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horner, V., & Whiten, A. (2005). Causal knowledge and imitation/emulation switching in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and children (Homo sapiens). Animal Cognition, 8(3), 164–181. doi:10.1007/s10071-004-0239-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Humstone, H. J. (1919). Memory span tests. The Psychological Clinic, 12, 196–200.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Huttenlocher, J., Newcombe, N., & Sandberg, E. H. (1994). The coding of spatial location in young children. Cognitive Psychology, 27, 115–147. doi:10.1006/cogp.1994.1014
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ingersoll, B. (2011). Brief report: Effect of a focused imitation intervention on social functioning in children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42, 1768–1773. doi:10.1007/s10803-011-1423-6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1992). Beyond modularity. Cambridge, MA: MIT.
   Google Scholar
• Kousaie, S., Sheppard, C., Lemieux, M., Monetta, L., & Taler, V. (2014). Executive function and bilingualism in young and older adults. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 8, 250. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00250
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lakusta, L., & Landau, B. (2005). Starting at the end: The importance of goals in spatial language. Cognition, 96, 1–33. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2004.03.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, E. (2012). iPad app targets preschool learning market. San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved from http://www.sfgate.com/technology/article/iPad-app-targets-preschool-learning-market-4082439.php
   Google Scholar
• Lingnau, A., & Caramazza, A. (2014). The origin and function of mirror neurons: The missing link. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 37, 209–210. doi:10.1017/S0140525X13002380
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lingnau, A., Gesierich, B., & Caramazza, A. (2009). Asymmetric fMRI adaptation reveals no evidence for mirror neurons in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 9925–9930. doi:10.1073/pnas.0902262106
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyons, D. E., Young, A. G., & Keil, F. C. (2007). The hidden structure of overimitation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104, 19751–19756. doi:10.1073/pnas.0704452104
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malone, T. (2011). Finger paints, picture books and iPads—the newest classroom tools for some preschools, kindergartens. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved from http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2011-05-10/news/ct-met-ipad-for-prek-0511-20110510_1_ipads-preschool-classroom-kindergartens
   Google Scholar
• Marshall, P. J., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2014). Neural mirroring mechanisms and imitation in human infants. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 369 (1644), 20130620. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0620
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDuffie, A., Turner, L., Stone, W., Yoder, P., Wolery, M., & Ulman, T. (2007). Developmental correlates of different types of motor imitation in young children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 401–412. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0175-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGuigan, N., Makinson, J., & Whiten, A. (2011). From over-imitation to super-copying: Adults imitate causally irrelevant aspects of tool use with higher fidelity than young children. British Journal of Psychology, 102, 1–18. doi:10.1348/000712610X493115
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGuigan, N., Whiten, A., Flynn, E., & Horner, V. (2007). Imitation of causally opaque versus causally transparent tool use by 3- and 5-year-old children. Cognitive Development, 22, 353–364. doi:10.1016/J.Cogdev.2007.01.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michotte, A. (1946). The perception of causality. New York, NY: Basic Books.
   Google Scholar
• Moser, A., Gerhardstein, P., Zimmermann, L., Grenell, A., & Barr, R. (2015). They can interact, but can they learn? Toddlers’ transfer learning from touchscreens and television. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 137, 137–155. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.04.002
   Google Scholar
• Nielsen, M. (2006). Copying actions and copying outcomes: Social learning through the second year. Developmental Psychology, 42, 555–565. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.3.555
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nielsen, M., Moore, C., & Mohamedally, J. (2012). Young children overimitate in third-party contexts. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 112, 73–83. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2012.01.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radesky, J. S., Schumacher, J., & Zuckerman, B. (2015). Mobile and interactive media use by young children: The good, the bad, and the unknown. Pediatrics, 135, 1–3. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-2251
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ray, E., & Heyes, C. (2011). Imitation in infancy: The wealth of the stimulus. Developmental Science, 14, 92–105. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.00961.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rideout, V. (2013). Zero to eight: Children’s media use in America. San Francisco, CA: Common Sense Media.
   Google Scholar
• Rizzolatti, G., & Craighero, L. (2004). The mirror-neuron system. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 27, 169–192. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144230
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogers, S. J., Hepburn, S. L., Stackhouse, T., & Wehner, E. (2003). Imitation performance in toddlers with autism and those with other developmental disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 763–781. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00162
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roseberry, S., Hirsch-Pasek, K., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2014). Skype me! Socially contingent interactions help toddlers learn language. Child Development, 85, 956–970. doi:10.1111/cdev.12166
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roseberry, S., Hirsch-Pasek, K., Parish-Morris, J., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2009). Live action: Can young children learn verbs from video? Child Development, 80, 1360–1375. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01338.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rovee-Collier, C., & Barr, R. (2010). Infant learning and memory (J. G. Bremner & T. Wachs, Eds., 2nd ed.). Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Rumiati, R. I., & Tessari, A. (2002). Imitation of novel and well-known actions: The role of short-term memory. Experimental Brain Research, 142, 425–433. doi:10.1007/s00221-001-0956-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulz, L. E., Hooppell, C., & Jenkins, A. C. (2008). Judicious imitation: Children differentially imitate deterministically and probabilistically effective actions. Child Development, 79, 395–410. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01132.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherwood, C. C., Subiaul, F., & Zawidzki, T. W. (2008). A natural history of the human mind: Tracing evolutionary changes in brain and cognition. Journal of Anatomy, 212, 426–454. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2008.00868.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stroop, J. D. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643–662. doi:10.1037/h0054651
   Google Scholar
• Subiaul, F. (2010). Dissecting the imitation faculty: The multiple imitation mechanisms (MIM) hypothesis. Behavioural Processes, 83, 222–234. doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2009.12.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Subiaul, F., Anderson, S., Brandt, J., & Elkins, J. (2012). Multiple imitation mechanisms in children. Developmental Psychology, 48, 1165–1179. doi:10.1037/a0026646
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Subiaul, F., Lurie, H., Kathryn, R., Klein, T., Holmes, D., & Terrace, H. S. (2007). Cognitive imitation in typically-developing 3- and 4-year olds and individuals with autism. Cognitive Development, 22, 230–243. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2006.10.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Subiaul, F., Patterson, E., Renner, E., Schilder, B., & Barr, R. (2014). Becoming a high-fidelity - super - imitator: What are the contributions of social and individual learning? Developmental Science. Advance online publication. doi:10.1111/desc.12276
   Google Scholar
• Subiaul, F., Romansky, K., Cantlon, J. F., Klein, T., & Terrace, H. S. (2007). Cognitive imitation in 2-year-old children (Homo sapiens): A comparison with rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Animal Cognition, 10, 369–375. doi:10.1007/s10071-006-0070-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Subiaul, F., & Schilder, B. (2014). Working memory constraints on imitation and emulation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 128, 190–200. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.07.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sutton, J. (2006). The development of landmark and beacon use in young children: Evidence from a touchscreen search task. Developmental Science, 9, 108–123. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2005.00467.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terrace, H. S. (2005). The simultaneous chain: A new approach to serial learning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 202–210. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.02.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tessari, A., Canessa, N., Ukmar, M., & Rumiati, R. I. (2007). Neuropsychological evidence for a strategic control of multiple routes in imitation. Brain, 130, 1111–1126. doi:10.1093/brain/awm003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vanvuchelen, M., Roeyers, H., & De Weerdt, W. (2011a). Development and initial validation of the Preschool Imitation and Praxis Scale (PIPS). Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5, 463–473. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2010.06.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vanvuchelen, M., Roeyers, H., & De Weerdt, W. (2011b). Measuring procedural imitation aptitude in children: Further validation of the Preschool Imitation and Praxis Scale (PIPS). Perceptual and Motor Skills, 113, 773–792. doi:10.2466/10.11.22.PMS.113.6.773-792
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Want, S. C., & Harris, P. L. (2002). How do children ape? Applying concepts from the study of non-human primates to the developmental study of ‘imitation’ in children. Developmental Science, 5, 1–14. doi:10.1111/1467-7687.00194
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wellman, H. M., & Cross, D. (2001). Theory of mind and conceptual change. Child Development, 72, 702–707. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00309
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wellman, H. M., Lopez-Duran, S., LaBounty, J., & Hamilton, B. (2008). Infant attention to intentional action predicts preschool theory of mind. Developmental Psychology, 44, 618–623. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.2.618
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception. Cognition, 13, 103–128. doi:10.1016/0010-0277(83)90004-5
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wohlschlager, A., Gattis, M., & Bekkering, H. (2003). Action generation and action perception in imitation: An instance of the ideomotor principle. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 358, 501–515. doi:10.1098/rstb.2002.1257
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young, G. S., Rogers, S. J., Hutman, T., Rozga, A., Sigman, M., & Ozonoff, S. (2011). Imitation from 12 to 24 months in autism and typical development: A longitudinal Rasch analysis. Developmental Psychology, 47, 1565–1578. doi:10.1037/a0025418
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zack, E., Barr, R., Gerhardstein, P., Dickerson, K., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2009). Infant imitation from television using novel touch screen technology. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 27, 13–26. doi:10.1348/026151008x334700
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zack, E., Barr, R., Gerhardstein, P., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2013). Role of narrative cues on transfer from 2D to 3D and vice versa. Journal of Scandinavian Psychology, 54, 20–25. doi:10.1111/sjop.12001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zentall, T. R. (2012). Perspectives on observational learning in animals. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 126, 114–128. doi:10.1037/a0025381
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar