Development of Physiologically Based Toxicokinetic Models for Improving the Human Indoor Exposure Assessment to Water Contaminants: Trichloroethylene and TrihalomethanesFootnote

*The present study was made possible due to funding from the Environmental Health Research Network (Réseau de recherche en santé environnementale) of the Fonds de la recherche en santé du Québec (FRSQ).

REFERENCES

• Andelman, J. B., 1985. Inhalation exposure in the home to volatile organic contaminants of drinking water, Sci Total Environ 47 (1985), pp. 443–460, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Batterman, S., Zhang, L., Wang, S., and Franzblau, A., 2002. Partition coefficients for the trihalomethanes among blood, urine, water, milk and air, Sci Total Environ 284 (3) (2002), pp. 237–247, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen, C. W., and Blancato, J. N., 1989. Incorporation of biological information in cancer risk assessment: example–vinyl chloride, Cell Biol Toxicol 5 (1989), pp. 417–444, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chinery, R. L., and Gleason, A. K., 1993. A compartmental model for the prediction of breath concentration and absorbed dose of chloroform after exposure while showering, Risk Anal 13 (1993), pp. 51–62, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clewell, H. J., Gentry, P. R., Covington, T. R., and Gearhart, J. M., 2000. Development of a physiologically based pharmacokinetic model of trichloroethylene and its metabolites for use in risk assessment, Environ Health Perspect 108 (Suppl 2) (2000), pp. 283–305, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Constan, A. A., Sprankle, C. S., Peters, J. M., Kedderis, G. L., Everitt, J. I., Wong, B. A., Gonzalez, F. L., and Butterworth, B. E., 1999. Metabolism of chloroform by cytochrome P450 2E1 is required for induction of toxicity in the liver, kidney, and nose of male mice, Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 160 (1999), pp. 120–126, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corley, R. A., Gordon, S. M., and Wallace, L. A., 2000. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling of the temperature-dependent dermal absorption of chloroform by humans following bath water exposures, Toxicol Sci 53 (2000), pp. 13–23, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corley, R. A., Mendrala, A. L., Smith, F. A., Staats, D. A., Gargas, M. L., Conolly, R. B., Andersen, M. E., and Reitz, R. H., 1990. Development of a physiologically based pharmacokinetic model for chloroform, Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 103 (1990), pp. 512–527, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dodds, L., and King, W. D., 2001. Relation between trihalomethane compounds and birth defects, Occup Environ Med 58 (2001), pp. 443–446, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ershow, A. G., and Cantor, K. P., 1989. "Total tapwater intake in the Unites States: Population-based estimates of quantities and sources". Bethesda, MD: Life Sciences Research Office, Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology; 1989.
   Google Scholar
• Forkert, P. G., Lash, L. H., Nadeau, V., Tardif, R., and Simmonds, A., 2002. Metabolism and toxicity of trichloroethylene in epididymis and testis, Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 182 (2002), pp. 244–254, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gargas, M. L., Burgess, R. J., Voisard, D. E., Cason, G. H., and Andersen, M. E., 1985. Partition coefficients of low-molecular-weight volatile chemicals in various liquids and tissues, Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 98 (1985), pp. 87–99, [CSA][CROSSREF].
   Google Scholar
• Haddad, S., Pelekis, M., and Krishnan, K., 1996. A methodology for solving physiologically based pharmacokinetic models without the use of simulation softwares, Toxicol Lett 85 (1996), pp. 113–126, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haddad, S., Restieri, C., and Krishnan, K., 2001. Characterization of age-related changes in body weight and organ weights from birth to adolescence in humans, J Toxicol Environ Health A 64 (2001), pp. 453–464, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henschler, D., Romen, W., Elsasser, H. M., Reichert, D., Eder, E., and Radwan, Z., 1980. Carcinogenicity study of trichloroethylene by longterm inhalation in three animal species, Arch Toxicol 43 (1980), pp. 237–248, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• International Life Sciences Institute, 1997. "An evaluation of EPA's proposed guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment using chloroform and dichloroacetate as case studies: report of an expert panel". Washington, DC. 1997.
   Google Scholar
• Jo, W. K., Weisel, C. P., and Lioy, P. J., 1990a. Chloroform exposure and the health risk associated with multiple uses of chlorinated tap water, Risk Anal 10 (1990a), pp. 581–585, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jo, W. K., Weisel, C. P., and Lioy, P. J., 1990b. Routes of chloroform exposure and body burden from showering with chlorinated tap water, Risk Anal 10 (1990b), pp. 575–580, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jorgenson, T. A., Meierhenry, E. F., Rushbrook, C. J., Bull, R. J., and Robinson, M., 1985. Carcinogenicity of chloroform in drinking water to male Osborne-Mendel rats and female B6C3F1 mice, Fundam Appl Toxicol 5 (1985), pp. 760–769, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kim, E., Little, J. C., and Chiu, N., 2004. Estimating exposure to chemical contaminants in drinking water, Environ Sci Technol 38 (2004), pp. 2482–2490, [CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Krasner, S. W., McGuire, M. J., Jacangelo, J. G., Papnia, N. L., Reagan, K. M., and Aieta, E. M., 1989. The occurrence of disinfection by-products in US drinking water, J Am Water Works Assoc 81 (1989), pp. 41–53, [CSA].
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krishnan, K., and Andersen, M. E., 2001. "Physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling in toxicology". In: Hayes, A. W., ed. Principles and methods of toxicology . Philadelphia: Taylor and Francis; 2001. pp. 193–241.
   Google Scholar
• Laparé, S., Tardif, R., and Brodeur, J., 1995. Effect of various exposure scenarios on the biological monitoring of organic solvents in alveolar air. II. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane and trichloroethylene, Int Arch Occup Environ Health 67 (1995), pp. 375–394, [CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lévesque, B., Ayotte, P., LeBlanc, A., Dewailly, E., Prud'Homme, D., Lavoie, R., Allaire, S., and Levallois, P., 1994. Evaluation of dermal and respiratory chloroform exposure in humans, Environ Health Perspect 102 (1994), pp. 1082–1087, [CSA].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lévesque, B., Ayotte, P., Tardif, R., Charest-Tardif, G., Dewailly, E., Prud'Homme, D., Gingras, G., Allaire, S., and Lavoie, R., 2000. Evaluation of the health risk associated with exposure to chloroform in indoor swimming pools, J Toxicol Environ Health A 61 (2000), pp. 225–243, [CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luciene da Silva, M., Charest-Tardif, G., Krishnan, K., and Tardif, R., 1999. Influence of oral administration of a quaternary mixture of trihalomethanes on their blood kinetics in the rat, Toxicol Lett 106 (1999), pp. 49–57, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lyman, W. J., Reehl, W. F., and Rosenblatt, D. H., 1982. Handbook of Chemical Property estimation methods. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1982.
   Google Scholar
• Maxwell, N. I., Burmaster, D. E., and Ozonoff, D., 1991. Trihalomethanes and maximum contaminant levels: the significance of inhalation and dermal exposures to chloroform in household water, Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 14 (1991), pp. 297–312, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCarley, K. D., and Bunge, A. L., 2001. Pharmacokinetic models of dermal absorption, J Pharm Sci 90 (2001), pp. 1699–1719, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDougal, J. N., Jepson, G. W., Clewell, H. J., MacNaughton, M. G., and Andersen, M. E., 1986. A physiological pharmacokinetic model for dermal absorption of vapors in the rat, Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 85 (1986), pp. 286–294, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKone, T. E., 1987. Human exposure to volatile organic compounds in household tap water: the indoor inhalation pathway, Environ Sci Technol 21 (1987), pp. 1194–1201, [CSA][CROSSREF].
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKone, T. E., 1993. Linking a PBPK model for chloroform with measured breath concentrations in showers: implications for dermal exposure models, J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 3 (1993), pp. 339–365, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA].
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• McKone, T. E., and Knevzovich, J. P., 1991. The transfer of trichloroethylene (TCE) from a shower to indoor air: experimental measurements and their implications, J Air Waster Manage Assoc 40 (1991), pp. 282–286, [CSA].
   Google Scholar
• Mills, C. J., Bull, R. J., Cantor, K. P., Reif, J., Hrudey, S. E., and Huston, P., 1998. Workshop report. Health risks of drinking water chlorination by-products: report of an expert working group, Chronic Dis Can 19 (1998), pp. 91–102, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA].
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nakai, J. S., Stathopulos, P. B., Campbell, G. L., Chu, I., Li-Muller, A., and Aucoin, R., 1999. Penetration of chloroform, trichloroethylene, and tetrachloroethylene through human skin, J Toxicol Environ Health A 58 (1999), pp. 157–170, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Cancer Institute, 1976a. "Carcinogenesis bioassay of chloroform". Bethesda, MD: Carcinogen Bioassay and Program Resources Branch; 1976a.
   Google Scholar
• National Cancer Institute, 1976b. "Carcinogenesis bioassay of trichloroethylene". Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office; 1976b, NCI-CG-TR-2.
   Google Scholar
• National Toxicology Program, 1983. "Technical report on the toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of trichloroethylene (without epichlorohydrin) in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice". Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 1983, NTP TR 243.
   Google Scholar
• National Toxicology Program, 1985. "Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of chlorodibromomethane (CAS No. 75-27-4) in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (gavage studies)". Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 1985, NTP TR 282.
   Google Scholar
• National Toxicology Program, 1986. "Studies of bromodichloromethane (CAS No. 124-48-1) in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (gavage studies)". Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 1986, NTP TR 321.
   Google Scholar
• National Toxicology Program, 1987. "Technical report on the toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of bromodichloromethane (CAS No. 75-27-4) in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (gavage studies)". Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 1987, NTP TR 282.
   Google Scholar
• National Toxicology Program, 1988. "Technical report on the toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of tribromomethane (bromoform) in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 mice (gavage study)". Research Triangle Park, NC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 1988, NTP TR 350.
   Google Scholar
• Nieuwenhuijsen, M. J., Toledano, M. B., Eaton, N. E., Fawell, J., and Elliott, P., 2000. Chlorination disinfection byproducts in water and their association with adverse reproductive outcomes: a review, Occup Environ Med 57 (2000), pp. 73–85, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• OMS, 2000. Critères d'hygiène et documentation à l'appui. Vol. 2. Genève: OMS; 2000, Directives De La Qualité Pour L'Eau De Boisson. 2e Éd.
   Google Scholar
• Otson, R., Williams, D. T., and Bothwell, P. D., 1982. Volatile organic compounds in water at thirty Canadian potable water treatment facilities, J Assoc Off Anal Chem 65 (1982), pp. 1370–1374, [CSA].
   Google Scholar
• Poet, T. S., Corley, R. A., Thrall, K. D., Edwards, J. A., Tanojo, H., Weitz, K. K., Hui, X., Maibach, H. I., and Wester, R. C., 2000. Assessment of the percutaneous absorption of trichloroethylene in rats and humans using MS/MS real-time breath analysis and physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling, Toxicol Sci 56 (2000), pp. 61–72, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Portier, C. J., and Kaplan, N. L., 1989. Variability of safe dose estimates when using complicated models of the carcinogenic process. A case study: methylene chloride, Fundam Appl Toxicol 13 (1989), pp. 533–44, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Poulin, P., and Krishnan, K., 1996. A tissue composition-based algorithm for predicting tissue:air partition coefficients of organic chemicals, Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 136 (1996), pp. 126–130, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Price, K., Haddad, S., and Krishnan, K., 2003a. Physiological modeling of age-specific changes in the pharmacokinetics of organic chemicals in children, J Toxicol Environ Health A 66 (2003a), pp. 417–33, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Price, P. S., Conolly, R. B., Chaisson, C. F., Gross, E. A., Young, J. S., Mathis, E. T., and Tedder, D. R., 2003b. Modeling interindividual variation in physiological factors used in PBPK models of humans, Crit Rev Toxicol 33 (2003b), pp. 469–503, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramsey, J. C., and Andersen, M. E., 1984. A physiologically based description of the inhalation pharmacokinetics of styrene in rats and humans, Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 73 (1984), pp. 159–175, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roy, A., Weisel, C. P., Lioy, P. J., and Georgopoulos, P. G., 1996. A distributed parameter physiologically-based pharmacokinetic model for dermal and inhalation exposure to volatile organic compounds, Risk Anal 16 (1996), pp. 147–160, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shatkin, J. A., and Brown, H. S., 1991. Pharmacokinetics of the dermal route of exposure to volatile organic chemicals in water: a computer simulation model, Environ Res 56 (1991), pp. 90–108, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, A. E., Gray, G. M., and Evans, J. S., 1995. The ability of predicted internal dose measures to reconcile tumor bioassay data for chloroform, Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 21 (1995), pp. 339–351, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tardif, R., Charest-Tardif, G., Brodeur, J., and Krishnan, K., 1997. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling of a ternary mixture of alkyl benzenes in rats and humans, Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 144 (1997), pp. 120–134, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tardif, R., Droz, P. O., Charest-Tardif, G., Pierrehumbert, G., and Truchon, G., 2002. Impact of human variability on the biological monitoring of exposure to toluene: J. Physiologically based toxicokinetic modelling, Toxicol Lett 134 (2002), pp. 155–163, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teuschler, L. K., Rice, G. E., Wilkes, C. R., Lipscomb, J. C., and Power, F. W., 2004. A feasibility study of cumulative risk assessment methods for drinking water disinfection by-product mixtures, J Toxicol Environ Health A 67 (2004), pp. 755–777, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA][CROSSREF].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas, R. S., Bigelow, P. L., Keefe, T. J., and Yang, R. S., 1996. Variability in biological exposure indices using physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling and Monte Carlo simulation, Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 57 (1996), pp. 23–32, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• www.epa.gov/iris/subst/index.htmlU.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1997. Integrated Risk Information System, IRIS substance files for chloroform (4/1/97), bromodichloromethane (3/1/97), dibromochloromethane (3/1/97), chloroform (3/1/97), accessed online.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2002. "The Feasibility of Performing Cumulative Risk Assessments for Mixtures of Disinfection By-Products in Drinking Water". Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Center for Environmental Assessment; 2002, EPA/600/R-03/051.
   Google Scholar
• Wartenberg, D., Reyner, D., and Scott, C. S., 2000. Trichloroethylene and cancer: epidemiologic evidence, Environ Health Perspect 108 (Suppl 2) (2000), pp. 161–176, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weisel, C. P., Kim, H., Haltmeier, P., and Klotz, J. B., 1999. Exposure estimates to disinfection by-products of chlorinated drinking water, Environ Health Perspect 107 (1999), pp. 103–110, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkes, C. R., Small, M. J., Andelman, J. B., Giardino, N. J., and Marshall, J., 1992. Inhalation exposure model for volatile chemicals from indoor uses of water, Atmos Environ 26A (1992), pp. 2227–2236, [CSA].
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkes, C. R., Small, M. J., Davidson, C. I., and Andelman, J. B., 1996. Modeling the effects of water usage and co-behavior on inhalation exposures to contaminants volatilized from household water, J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 6 (1996), pp. 393–412, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA].
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wilkes, C. R., Mason, A. D., and Hern, S. C., 2005. Probability distributions for showering and bathing water-use behavior for various U.S. subpopulations, Risk Anal 25 (2005), pp. 317–337, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA].
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Williams, D. T., Otson, R., Bothwell, P. D., Murphy, K. L., and Robertson, J. L., 1980. "Trihalomethane levels in Canadian drinking water". In: Afghan, B. K, and Mackay, D., eds. Hydrocarbons and Halogenated Hydrocarbons in the Aquatic Environment. New York: Plenum Publishing Corporation; 1980. pp. 503–512.
   Google Scholar
• Xu, X., Mariano, T. M., Laskin, J. D., and Weisel, C. P., 2002. Percutaneous absorption of trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, and haloketones, Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 184 (2002), pp. 19–26, [INFOTRIEVE][CSA].
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar