Health Effects Associated With Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution

REFERENCES

• Abbey , D. E. , Nishino , N. , McDonnel , W. F. , Burchette , R. J. , Knutsen , S. F. , Beeson , W. L. and Yang , J. X. 1999 . Long-term inhalable particles and other air pollutants related to mortality in nonsmokers . Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care , 159 : 373 – 382 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , H. R. , Atkinson , R. W. , Bremner , S. A. and Marston , L. 2003 . Particulate air pollution and hospital admissions for cardiorespiratory diseases: Are the elderly at greater risk? . Eur. Respir. J , 21 : 39S – 46S .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atkinson , R. W. , Anderson , H. R. , Sunyer , J. , Ayres , J. , Baccini , M. , Vonk , J. M. , Boumghar , A. , Forastiere , F. , Forsberg , B. , Touloumi , G. , Schwartz , J. and Katsouyanni , K. 2001 . Acute effects of particulate air pollution on respiratory admissions—Results from APHEA 2 project . Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care , 164 : 1860 – 1866 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brook , R. D. , Brook , J. R. , Urch , B. , Vincent , R. , Rajagopalan , S. and Silverman , F. 2002 . Inhalation of fine particulate air pollution and ozone causes acute arterial vasoconstriction in healthy adults . Circulation , 105 : 1534 – 1536 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunekreef , B. 2003 . Design of cohort studies for air pollution effects . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 66 : 1723 – 1734 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burnett , R. T. , Dales , R. , Krewski , D. , Vincent , R. , Dann , T. and Brook , J. R. 1995 . Associations between ambient particulate sulfate and admissions to Ontario hospitals for cardiac and respiratory diseases . Am. J. Epidemiol , 142 : 15 – 22 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burnett , R. T. , Brook , J. R. , Yung , W. T. , Dales , R. E. and Krewski , D. 1997a . Association between ozone and hospitalization for respiratory diseases in 16 Canadian cities . Environ. Res , 72 : 24 – 31 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burnett , R. T. , Dales , R. E. , Brook , J. R. , Raizenne , M. E. and Krewski , D. 1997b . Association between ambient carbon monoxide levels and hospitalizations for congestive heart failure in the elderly in 10 Canadian cities . Epidemiology , 8 : 162 – 167 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burnett , R. T. , Smith-Doiron , M. , Stieb , D. , Çakmak , S. and Brook , J. R. 1999 . Effects of particulate and gaseous air pollution on cardiorespiratory hospitalizations . Arch. Environ. Health , 54 : 130 – 139 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burnett , R. T. , Brook , J. , Dann , T. , Delocla , C. , Philips , O. , Çakmak , S. , Vincent , R. , Goldberg , M. S. and Krewski , D. 2000 . Association between particulate and gas phase components of urban air pollution and daily mortality in eight Canadian cities . Inhal. Toxicol , 12 : 15 – 39 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burnett , R. T. , Smith-Doiron , M. , Stieb , D. , Raizenne , M. E. , Brook , J. R. , Dales , R. E. , Leech , J. A. , Çakmak , S. and Krewski , D. 2001 . Association between ozone and hospitalization for acute respiratory diseases in children less than 2 years of age . Am. J. Epidemiol , 153 : 444 – 452 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Çakmak , S. , Burnett , R. T. , Jerrett , M. , Goldberg , M. S. , Pope , A. , Ma , R. , Gultekin , T. , Thun , M. J. and Krewski , D. 2003 . Spatial regression models for large-cohort studies linking community air pollution and health . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 66 : 1811 – 1824 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calderon-Garciduenas , L. , Mora-Tiscareno , A. , Fordham , L. A. , Valencia-Salazar , G. , Chung , C. J. , Rodriguez-Alcaraz , A. , Paredes , R. , Variakojis , D. , Villarreal-Calderon , A. , Flores-Camacho , L. , Antunez-Solis , A. , Henriquez-Roldan , C. and Hazucha , M. J. 2003 . Respiratory damage in children exposed to urban pollution . Pediatr. Pulmol , 36 : 148 – 161 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Canada Wide Standards Development Committee for Particulate Matter and Ozone. 1999. Compendium of Benefits Information. 99-08-17.
   Google Scholar
• Chang , L.-T. , Koutrakis , P. , Catalano , P. J. and Suh , H. H. 2003 . Assessing the importance of different exposure metrics and time-activity data to predict 24-h personal PM2.5 exposures . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 66 : 1825 – 1846 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clancy , L. , Goodman , P. , Sinclair , H. and Dockery , D. W. 2002 . Effect of air-pollution control on death rates in Dublin, Ireland: An intervention study . Lancet , 360 : 1210 – 1214 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , A. J. , Krewski , D. , Samet , J. , and Willes , R. , eds. Health and air quality: Interpreting science for decision makers J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 2003 66 1489 1903
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Devlin , R. B. , Ghio , A. J. , Kehrl , H. , Sanders , G. and Cascio , W. 2003 . Elderly humans exposed to concentrated air pollution particles have decreased heart rate variability . Eur. Respir. J , 21 : 76s – 80s .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dockery , D. W. , Pope , C. A. , Xu , X. P , Spengler , J. D. , Ware , J. H. , Fay , M. E. , Ferris , B. G. and Speizer , F. E. 1993 . An association between air pollution and mortality in six U.S. cities . N. Engl. J. Med , 329 : 1753 – 1759 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dominici , F. , Zeger , S. L. and Samet , J. M. 2000 . A measurement error model for time-series studies of air pollution and mortality . Biostatistics , 1 : 157 – 175 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dominici , F. , McDermott , A. , Daniels , M. , Zeger , S. L. and Samet , J. M. 2003a . “ Revised analyses of the National Morbidity, Mortality, and Air Pollution Study, Part II. Mortality among residents of 90 cities ” . In Health Effects Institute. 2003. Revised analyses of time-series studies of air pollution and health , Boston : Health Effects Institute . Special report
   Google Scholar
• Dominici , F. , McDermott , A. , Zeger , S. L. and Samet , J. M. 2003b . Airborne particulate matter and mortality: Time-scale effects in four US cities . Am. J. Epidemiol , 157 : 1055 – 1065 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frampton , M. W. 2001 . Systematic and cardiovascular effects of airway injury and inflammation: Ultrafine particle exposure in humans . Environ. Health Perspect , 109 : 529 – 532 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fung , K. Y. , Krewski , D. , Chen , Y. , Burnett , R. and Cakmak , S. 2003 . Comparison of time series and case-crossover analyses of air pollution and hospital admission data . Int. J. Epidemiol , 32 : 1064 – 1070 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fung , K. Y. , Krewski , D. , Burnett , R. T. and Dominici , F. 2005 . Testing the harvesting hypothesis by time domain regression analysis . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 68 : 1137 – 1154 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gent , J. F. , Triche , E. W. , Holford , T. R. , Belanger , K. , Bracken , M. B. , Beckett , W. S. and Leaderer , B. P. 2003 . Association of low-level ozone and fine particles with respiratory symptoms in children with asthma . J. Am. Med. Assoc , 290 : 1859 – 1867 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberg , M. S. and Burnett , R. T. 2005 . A new longitudinal design for identifying subgroups of the population who are susceptible to the short-term effects of ambient air pollution . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 68 : 1111 – 1125 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenbaum , D. S. 2003 . A historical perspective on the regulation of particles . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 66 : 1493 – 1498 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenbaum , D. S. , Bachmann , J. D. , Krewski , D. , Samet , J. M. , White , R. and Wyzga , R. E. 2001 . Particulate air pollution standards and morbidity and mortality: Case study . Am. J. Epidemiol , 154 : 78S – 90S .
   Google Scholar
• Health Effects Institute. 2003a. Revised analyses of time-series studies of air pollution and health, Revised analyses of the National Morbidity, Mortality, and Air Pollution Study, Part II. Revised analyses of selected time-series studies. Preprint version. http://www.healtheffects.org/Pubs/TimeSeries.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Health Effects Institute . 2003b . Assessing health impact of air quality regulations: Concepts and methods for accountability research , Boston : Health Effects Institute . Communication 11. HEI Accountability Working Group
   Google Scholar
• Hedley , A. J. , Wong , C. M. , Thach , T. Q. , Ma , S. , Lam , T. H. and Anderson , H. R. 2002 . Cardiorespiratory and all-cause mortality after restrictions on sulphur content of fuel in Hong Kong: An intervention study . Lancet , 360 : 1646 – 1652 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoek , G. , Brunekreef , B. , Goldbohm , S. , Fischer , P. and van den Brandt , P. A. 2002 . Association between mortality and indicators of traffic-related air pollution in the Netherlands: A cohort study . Lancet , 360 : 1203 – 1209 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoover , B. K. , Foliart , D. E. , White , W. H. , Cohen , A. J. , Calisti , L. J. , Krewski , D. and Goldberg , M. S. 2003 . Retrospective data quality audits of the Harvard Six Cities and American Cancer Society studies . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 66 : 1553 – 1562 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jang , A. S. , Yeum , C. H. and Son , M. H. 2003 . Epidemiologic evidence of a relationship between airway hyperresponsiveness and exposure to polluted air . Allergy , 58 : 585 – 588 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jerrett , M. , Burnett , R. T. , Goldberg , M. S. , Sears , M. , Krewski , D. , Catalin , R. , Kanaroglou , P. , Giovis , C. and Finkelstein , N. 2003a . Spatial analysis for environmental health research: Concepts, methods and examples . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 66 : 1783 – 1810 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jerrett , M. , Burnett , R. T. , Willis , A. , Krewski , D. , Goldberg , M. S. , DeLuca , P. and Finkelstein , N. 2003b . Spatial analysis of the air pollution–mortality relationship in the context of ecologic confounders . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 66 : 1735 – 1778 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karakatsani , A. , Andreadaki , S. , Katsouyanni , K. , Dimitroulis , D. , Benetou , V. and Trichopoulou , A. 2003 . Air pollution in relation to manifestation of chronic pulmonary disease: A nested case-control study in Athens, Greece . Eur. J. Epidemiol , 18 : 45 – 53 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katsouyanni , K. , Touloumi , G. , Spix , C. , Schwartz , J. , Balducci , F. , Medina , S. , Rossi , G. , Wojtyniak , B. , Sunyer , J. , Bacharova , L. , Schouten , J. P. , Ponka , A. and Anderson , H. R. 1997 . Short-term effects of ambient sulphur dioxide and particulate matter on mortality in 12 European cities: Results from time series data from the APHEA project . Br. Med. J , 314 : 1658 – 1663 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katsouyanni , K. , Samet , J. , Cohen , A. , Anderson , H. R. , Atkinson , R. , Burnett , R. T. , Dominici , F. , Krewski , D. , Le Tertre , A. , Medina , S. , Schwartz , J. , Touloumi , G. , Zanobetti , A and Zeger , S. . Air Pollution and Health: A Combined European and North American Approach (APHENA) . Poster presentation. 1st Annual AIRNET Conference . December 11–12 , London.
   Google Scholar
• Katsouyanni , K. , Touloumi , G. , Samoli , E. , Petasakis , Y. , Analitis , A. , Le Tertre , A. , Rossi , G. , Zmirou , D. , Ballester , F. , Boumghar , A. , Anderson , H. , Wojtyniak , B. , Paldy , A. , Braunstein , R. , Pekkanen , J. , Schindler , C. and Schwartz , J. 2003 . “ Sensitivity analysis of various models of short-term effects of ambient particles on total mortality in 29 cities in APHEA2 ” . In Health Effects Institute. 2003. Revised analyses of time-series studies of air pollution and health , Boston : Health Effects Institute . Special Report
   Google Scholar
• Koenig , J. Q. , Larson , T. V. , Hanley , Q. S. , Robelledo , V. , Dumler , K. , Checkoway , H. , Wang , S. Z. , Lin , D. and Pierson , W. E. 1993 . Pulmonary function changes in children associated with fine particulate matter . Environ. Res , 63 : 26 – 39 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krewski , D. , Burnett , R. T. , Goldberg , M. S. , Hoover , K. , Siemiatycki , J. , Jerrett , M. , Abrahamowicz , M. and White , W. H. 2000 . Reanalysis of the Harvard Six Cities study and the American Cancer Society study of particulate air pollution and mortality , Cambridge, MA : Health Effects Institute . A special report of the Institute's Particle Epidemiology Reanalysis Project
   Google Scholar
• Krewski , D. , Burnett , R. T. , Goldberg , M. S. , Hoover , K. , Siemiatycki , J. , Jerrett , M. , Abrahamowicz , M. and White , W. H. 2003 . Overview of the re-analysis of the Harvard six cities study and American Cancer Society study of particulate air pollution and mortality . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 66 : 1507 – 1552 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krewski , D. , Burnett , R. T. , Jerrett , M. , Pope , A. , Rainham , D. G. , Calle , E. E. , Thurston , G. D. and Thun , M. 2004 . Mortality and long-term exposure to ambient air pollution: Ongoing analyses based on the American Cancer Society cohort . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 68 : 1093 – 1109 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunzli , N. , Kaiser , R. , Medina , S. , Studnicka , M. , Chanel , O. , Filliger , P. , Herry , M. , Horak , F. , Puybonnieux-Texier , V. , Quenel , P. , Schneider , J. , Seethaler , R. , Vergnaud , J. C. and Sommer , H. 2000 . Public-health impact of outdoor and traffic-related air pollution: a European assessment . Lancet , 356 : 795 – 801 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Tertre , A. , Medina , S. , Samoli , E. , Forsberg , B. , Michelozzi , P. , Boumghar , A. , Vonk , J. M. , Bellini , A. , Atkinson , R. , Ayres , J. G. , Sunyer , J. , Schwartz , J. and Katsouyanni , K. 2002 . Short-term effects of particulate air pollution on cardiovascular diseases in eight European cities . J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health , 56 : 773 – 779 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin , M. , Chen , Y. , Burnett , R. T. , Villeneuve , P. J. and Krewski , D. 2002 . The influence of ambient coarse particulate matter on asthma hospitalization in children: Case-crossover and time-series analyses . Environ. Health Perspect , 110 : 575 – 581 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin , M. , Chen , Y. , Burnett , R. T. , Villeneuve , P. J. and Krewski , D. 2003a . Effect of short-term exposure to gaseous pollution on asthma hospitalization in children: A bi-directional case-crossover analysis . J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health , 57 : 50 – 55 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lin , M. , Chen , Y. , Villeneuve , P. J. , Burnett , R. T. , Lemyre , L. , Hertzman , C. , McGrail , K. and Krewski , D. 2003b . Gaseous air pollutants and asthma hospitalization of children with low household income in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada . Am. J. Epidemiol , 159 : 294 – 303 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linn , W. S. , Szlachcic , Y. , Gong , H. , Kinney , P. L. and Berhane , K. T. 2000 . Air pollution and daily hospital admissions in metropolitan Los Angeles . Environ. Health Perspect , 108 : 427 – 434 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu , S. , Krewski , D. , Shi , Y. , Chen , Y. and Burnett , R. T. 2003 . Association between gaseous air pollutants and adverse pregnancy outcomes in Vancouver, Canada . Environ. Health Perspect , 111 : 1773 – 1778 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ma , R. , Krewski , D. and Burnett , R. T. 2003 . Random effects Cox models: A Poisson modelling approach . Biometrika , 90 : 157 – 169 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mallick , R. , Fung , K. and Krewski , D. 2002 . Adjusting for measurement error in the Cox proportional hazards regression model . J. Cancer Epidemiol Prev , 7 : 155 – 164 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Maynard , R. 2003 . Scientific information needs for regulatory decision making . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 66 : 1499 – 1501 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maynard , R. , Krewski , D. , Burnett , R. T. , Samet , J. , Brook , J. E. , Granville , G. and Craig , L. 2003 . Health and air quality: Directions for policy-relevant research . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 66 : 1891 – 1904 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McDonnell , W. R. , Nishino-Ishikawa , N. , Petersen , F. F. , Chen , J. H. and Abbey , D. E. 2000 . Relationships of mortality with the fine and coarse fractions of long-term ambient PM10 concentrations in nonsmokers . J. Expos. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol , 10 : 427 – 436 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• National Research Council . 1998 . Committee on Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter. Research priorities for airborne particulate matter: No. 1. Immediate priorities and a long-range research portfolio , Washington, DC : National Academy Press .
   Google Scholar
• National Research Council . 1999 . Committee on Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter. Research priorities for airborne particulate matter: II. Evaluating research progress and updating the portfolio , Washington, DC : National Academy Press .
   Google Scholar
• National Research Council . 2000 . Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals , Vol. 1 , Washington, DC : National Academy Press .
   Google Scholar
• National Research Council . 2001 . Committee on Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter. Research priorities for airborne particulate matter III. Early research progress , Washington, DC : National Academy Press .
   Google Scholar
• National Research Council . 2002 . Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne contaminants , Vol. 2 , Washington, DC : National Academy Press .
   Google Scholar
• National Research Council . 2003 . Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne contaminants , Vol. 3 , Washington, DC : National Academy Press .
   Google Scholar
• National Research Council . January 2004 . Air quality management in the United States , January , Washington, DC : National Academy Press . Committee on Air Quality Management in the United States.
   Google Scholar
• Oftedal , B. , Nafstad , P. , Magnus , P. , Bjorkly , S. and Skrondal , A. 2003 . Traffic related air pollution and acute hospital admission for respiratory diseases in Drammen, Norway 1995–2000 . Eur. J. Epidemiol , 18 : 671 – 675 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters , J. , Hedley , A. J. , Wong , C. M. , Lam , T. H. , Ong , S. G. , Liu , J. and Spiegelhalter , D. J. 1996 . Effects of an ambient air pollution intervention and environmental tobacco smoke on children's respiratory health in Hong Kong . Int. J. Epidemiol , 25 : 821 – 828 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters , A. , Liu , E. , Verrier , R. L. , Schwartz , D. R. , Mittleman , M. , Baliff , J. , Oh , J. A , Allen , G. , Monahan , K. and Dockery , D. W. 2000 . Air pollution and incidences of cardiac arrhythmia . Epidemiology , 11 : 11 – 17 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pope , C. A. 1989 . Respiratory disease associated with community air pollution and a steel mill, Utah Valley . Am. J. Public Health , 79 : 623 – 628 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pope , C. A. 1996 . Particulate pollution and health: A review of the Utah Valley experience . J. Expos. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol , 6 : 23 – 34 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pope , C. A. , Thun , M. J. , Namboodiri , M. M. , Dockery , D. W. , Evans , J. S. , Speizer , F. E. and Heath , C. W. Jr. 1995 . Particulate air pollution as a predictor of mortality in a prospective study of U.S. adults . Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med , 151 : 669 – 674 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pope , C. A. , Burnett , R. T. , Thun , M. J. , Calle , E. E. , Krewski , D. , Ito , K. and Thurston , G. D. 2002 . Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution . J. Am. Med. Assoc , 287 : 1132 – 1141 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pope , C. A. , Burnett , R. T. , Thurston , G. D. , Thun , M. J. , Calle , E. , Krishnan , K. and Godleski , J. J. 2003 . Cardiovascular mortality and long-term exposure to particulate air pollution: Epidemiological evidence of general pathophysiological pathways of disease . Circulation , 109 : 71 – 77 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raizenne , M. 2003 . Science and regulation—U.S. and Canadian overview . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 66 : 1503 – 1506 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramsay , T. , Burnett , R. T. and Krewski , D. 2003a . Exploring bias in a generalized additive model for spatial air pollution data . Environ. Health Perspect , 111 : 1283 – 1288 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramsay , T. , Burnett , R. T. and Krewski , D. 2003b . The effect of concurvity in generalized additive models linking mortality to ambient particulate matter (with discussion) . Epidemiology , 14 : 18 – 23 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salehi , F. , Krewski , D. , Mergler , D. , Normandin , L. , Kennedy , G. , Philippe , S. and Zayed , J. 2003 . Bioaccumulation and locomotor effects of manganese phosphate/sulfate mixture in Sprague-Dawley rats following subchronic (90 days) inhalation exposure . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol , 191 : 264 – 271 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samet , J. M. , Dominici , F. , Curriero , F. , Coursac , I. and Zeger , S. L. 2000 . Particulate air pollution and mortality: Findings from 20 U.S. cities . N. Engl. J. Med , 343 : 1742 – 1757 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz , J. 1999 . Air pollution and hospital admissions for heart disease in eight U.S. counties . Epidemiology , 10 : 1 – 4 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz , J. 2000 . Harvesting and long term exposure effects in the relation between air pollution and mortality . Am. J. Epidemiol , 151 : 440 – 448 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stieb , D. M. , Judek , S. and Burnett , R. T. 2002a . Meta-analysis of time-series studies of air pollution and mortality: Effects of gases and particles and the influence of cause of death, age, and season . J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc , 52 : 470 – 484 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stieb , D. M. , Smith-Doiron , M. , Brook , J. R. , Burnett , R. T. , Dann , T. , Mamedov , A. and Chen , Y. 2002b . Air pollution and disability days in Toronto: Results from the National Population Health Survey . Environ. Res , 89 : 210 – 219 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sunyer , J. , Atkinson , R. , Ballester , F. , Le Tertre , A. , Ayres , J. G , Forastiere , F. , Forsberg , B. , Vonk , J. M. , Bisanti , L. , Anderson , R. H. , Schwartz , J. and Katsouyanni , K. 2003 . Respiratory effects of sulphur dioxide: A hierarchical multicity analysis in the APHEA 2 study . Occup. Environ. Med , 60 : 2e
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UK Department of Health. 2001. Statement and report on long-term effects of particles on mortality. London: HMSO. http://www.doh.gov.uk/comeap/state.htm#state
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . 1997 . “ The benefits and costs of the Clean Air Act, 1970 to 1990 ” . Washington, DC : Office of Air and Radiation . EPA-410-R-97-002
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency . 1999 . “ The benefits and costs of the Clean Air Act, 1990 to 2010: EPA Report to Congress ” . Washington, DC : Office of Air and Radiation . EPA-410-R-99-001
   Google Scholar
• Utell , M. J. , Frampton , M. W. , Zareba , W. , Devlin , R. B. and Cascio , W. E. 2002 . Cardiovascular effects associated with air pollution: Potential mechanisms and methods of testing . Inhal. Toxicol , 14 : 1231 – 1247 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villeneuve , P. J. , Goldberg , M. S. , Krewski , D. , Burnett , R. T. and Chen , Y. 2002 . Fine particulate air pollution and all-cause mortality within the Harvard Six-Cities Study: Variations in risk by period of exposure . Ann. Epidemiol , 12 : 568 – 576 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villeneuve , P. J. , Burnett , R. T. , Shi , Y. , Krewski , D. , Goldberg , M. S. , Hertzman , C. , Chen , Y. and Brook , J. 2003 . A time series study of air pollution, socioeconomic status, and mortality in Vancouver, Canada . J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol , 13 : 427 – 435 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vincent , R. , Jumarathasan , P. , Mukherjee , B. , Gravel , C. , Bjarnason , S. , Urch , B. , Speck , M. , Brook , J. , Tarlo , S. , Zimmerman , B. and Siverman , F. 2001 . Exposure to urban particles (PM2.5) causes elevation of the plasma vasopeptides endothelin (ET)-1 and ET-3 in humans (abst.) . Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med , 163 : A313
   Google Scholar
• White , W. H. and Suh , H. H. 2003 . Monitoring exposure to ambient air pollutants . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 66 : 1879 – 1882 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wigle , D.T. 2003 . Children's health and the environment , Oxford : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Willis , A. J. , Jerrett , M. , Burnett , R. T. and Krewski , D. 2003 . The association between sulfate air pollution and mortality at the county scale: An exploration of the impact of scale on a long-term exposure study . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 66 : 1605 – 1624 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization . 2002 . “ World Health Report ” . Geneva : World Health Organization .
   Google Scholar
• Yang , Q. , Chen , Y. , Shi , Y. , Burnett , R. T. , McGrail , K. and Krewski , D. 2003 . Association between ozone and respiratory admissions among children and the elderly in Vancouver, Canada . Inhal. Toxicol , 15 : 101 – 112 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zanobetti , A. and Schwartz , J. 2002 . Cardiovascular damage by airborne particles: Are diabetics more susceptible? . Epidemiology , 13 : 588 – 592 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zanobetti , A. , Wand , M. P. , Schwartz , J. and Ryan , L. M. 2000 . Generalized additive distributed lag models: quantifying mortality displacement . Biostatistics , 1 : 279 – 292 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zeger , S. , Dominici , F. and Samet , J. M. 1999 . Harvesting-resistant estimates of pollution effects on mortality . Epidemiology , 10 : 171 – 175 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar