Trihalomethanes in Drinking Water and the Risk of Death From Rectal Cancer: Does Hardness in Drinking Water Matter?

REFERENCES

• Bell , J. A. and Doege , T. C. 1984 . Drinking water and human health , Chicago : American Medical Association .
   Google Scholar
• Bellar , T. A. , Lichtenberg , J. J. and Kroner , R. C. 1974 . The occurrence of organohalides in chlorinated drinking waters . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 66 : 703 – 706 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bove , G. E. , Rogerson , P. A. and Vena , J. E. 2007 . Case control study of the geographical variability of exposure to disinfectant byproducts and risk for rectal cancer . Int. J. Health Geogr. , 6 : 8 – 19 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breslow , N. E. and Day , N. E. 1980 . Statistical methods in cancer research: The analysis of case-control studies , Lyon : IARC .
   Google Scholar
• Cantor , K. P. , Lynch , C. F. , Hildesheim , M. E. , Dosemeci , M. , Lubin , J. , Alavanja , M. and Craun , G. 1998 . Drinking water source and chlorination byproducts I. Risk of bladder cancer . Epidemiology , 9 : 21 – 28 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cantor , K. P. , Hoover , R. , Mason , T. J. and McCabe , L. J. 1978 . Association of cancer mortality with halomethanes in drinking water . J. Natl. Cancer Inst. , 61 : 979 – 985 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chang , C. C. , Ho , S. C. , Wang , L. Y. and Yang , C. Y. 2007 . Bladder cancer in Taiwan: Relationship to trihalomethane concentrations present in drinking water supplies . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 70 : 1717 – 1722 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , C. J. and Wang , C. J. 1990 . Ecological correlation between arsenic level in well water and age-adjusted mortality from malignant neoplasms . Cancer Res. , 50 : 5470 – 5474 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Claxton , L. D. , Pegram , R. , Schenck , K. M. , Simmons , J. E. and Warren , S. H. 2008 . Integrated disinfection by-products research: Salmonella mutagenicity of water concentrates disinfected by chlorination and ozonation/postchlorination . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 71 : 1187 – 1194 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeAngelo , A. B. , Daniel , F. B. , Most , B. M. and Olson , G. R. 1996 . The carcinogenicity of dichloroacetic acid in the male Fischer 344 rat . Toxicology , 114 : 207 – 221 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeAngelo , A. B. , Geter , D. R. , Rosenberg , D. W. , Crary , C. K. and George , M. H. 2002 . The induction of aberrant crypt foci (CF) in the colons of rats by trihalomethanes administered in the drinking water . Cancer Lett. , 187 : 25 – 31 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doyle , T. J. , Zheng , W. , Cerhan , J. R. , Hong , C. P. , Sellers , T. A. , Kushi , L. H. and Folsom , A. R. 1997 . The association of drinking water source and chlorination by-products with cancer incidence amongst postmenopausal women in Iowa: a prospective cohort study . Am. J. Public Health , 87 : 1168 – 1176 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Environmental Protection Administration (EPA), Taiwan . 2000 . A survey of drinking water for the not-so-easy analyzed analytes in the water quality standard , Taipei : EPA . EPA-89-J102-03-2058
   Google Scholar
• Environmental Protection Administration (EPA), Taiwan . 2002 . A survey of drinking water for the not-so-easy analyzed analytes in the water quality standard , Taipei : EPA . EPA-91-G108-02-201
   Google Scholar
• Geter , D. R. , George , M. H. , Moore , T. M. , Kilburn , S. , Huggins-Clark , G. and DeAngelo , A. B. 2004 . Vehicle and mode of administration effects on the induction of aberrant crypt foci in the colons of male F344/N rats exposed to bromodichloromethane . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 67 : 23 – 29 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geter , D. R. , Moore , T. M. , George , M. H. , Kilburn , S. R. , Allen , J. W. , Nelson , G. M. , Winkfield , E. and DeAngelo , A. B. 2005 . Tribromomethane exposure and dietary folate deficiency in the formation of aberrant crypt foci in the colons of F344/N rats . Food Chem. Toxicol. , 43 : 1405 – 1412 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gladen , B. and Rogan , W. 1979 . Misclassification and the design of environmental studies . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 109 : 607 – 616 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gottlieb , M. S. , Carr , J. K. and Morris , D. T. 1981 . Cancer and drinking water in Louisiana: Colon and rectum . Int. J. Epidemiol. , 10 : 117 – 125 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gottlieb , M. S. , Carr , J. K. and Clarkson , J. R. 1982 . Drinking water and cancer in Louisiana: A retrospective mortality study . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 116 : 652 – 667 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gottlieb , M. S. and Carr , J. K. 1982 . Case-control cancer mortality and chlorination of drinking water in Louisiana . Environ. Health Perspect. , 46 : 169 – 177 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hildesheim , M. E. , Cantor , K. P. , Lynch , C. F. , Dosemeci , M. , Lubin , J. , Alavanja , M. and Craun , G. 1998 . Drinking water source and chlorination byproducts II. Risk of colon and rectal cancers . Epidemiology , 9 : 29 – 35 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsu , C. H. , Jeng , W. L. , Chang , R. M. , Chien , L. C. and Han , B. C. 2001 . Estimation of potential lifetime cancer risks for trihalomethanes from consuming chlorinated drinking water in Taiwan . Environ. Res. , 85 : 77 – 82 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ijsselmuiden , C. B. , Gaydos , C. , Feighner , B. , Novakoski , W. L. , Serwadda , D. , Caris , L. H. , Vlahov , D. and Comstock , G. W. 1992 . Cancer of the pancreas and drinking water: A population-based case-control study in Washington County, Maryland . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 136 : 836 – 842 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanarek , M. S. and Young , T. B. 1982 . Drinking water treatment and risk of cancer death in Wisconsin . Environ. Health Perspect. , 46 : 179 – 186 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King , W. D. and Marrett , L. D. 1996 . Case-control study of bladder cancer and chlorination by-products in treated water . Cancer Causes Control , 7 : 596 – 604 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King , W. D. , Marrett , L. D. and Woolcott , C. G. 2000 . Case-control study of colon and rectal cancers and chlorination by-products in treated water . Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. , 9 : 813 – 818 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koivusalo , M. , Pukkala , E. , Vartiainen , T. , Jaakkola , J. J. K. and Hakulinen , T. 1997 . Drinking water chlorination and cancer—A historical cohort study in Finland . Cancer Causes Control , 8 : 192 – 200 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koivusalo , M. , Hakulinen , T. , Vartiainen , T. , Pukkala , E. , Jaakkola , J. J. K. and Tuomisto , J. 1998 . Drinking water mutagenicity and urinary tract cancers: a population-based case-control study in Finland . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 148 : 704 – 712 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krasner , S. W. , McGuire , M. J. , Jacangelo , J. G. , Patania , N. L. , Regan , K. M. and Aieta , E. M. 1989 . The occurrence of disinfection by-products in U.S. drinking water . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 81 : 41 – 53 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuo , H. W. , Tiao , M. M. , Tsai , S. S. , Wu , T. N. and Yang , C. Y. 2010 . Does calcium in drinking water modify the association between trihalomethanes and the risk of death from colon cancer? . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 73 : 657 – 668 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kukkula , M. and Lofroth , G. 1997 . Chlorinated drinking water and pancreatic cancer . Eur. J. Public Health , 7 : 297 – 301 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrence , C. E. , Taylor , P. R. , Trock , B. J. and Reilly , A. A. 1984 . Trihalomethanes in drinking water and human colorectal cancer . JNCI , 72 : 563 – 568 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Morris , R. D. , Audet , A. M. , Angelillo , I. F. , Chalmers , T. C. and Mosteller , F. 1992 . Chlorination, chlorination by-products, and cancer: A meta-analysis . Am. J. Public Health , 82 : 955 – 963 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pegram , R. A. , Anderson , M. E. , Warren , S. H. , Ross , T. M. and Claxton , L. D. 1997 . Glutathione S-transferase-mediated mutagenicity of trihalomethanes in Salmonella typhimurium: Contrasting results with bromodichloromethane and chloroform . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 144 : 183 – 188 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polissar , L. 1980 . The effect of migration on comparison of disease rates in geographic studies in the United States . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 111 : 175 – 182 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rice , G. E. , Teuschler , L. K. , Bull , R. J. , Simmons , J. E. and Eder , P. I. 2009 . Evaluating the similarity of complex drinking-water disinfection by-products mixtures: overview of the issues . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 72 : 429 – 436 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson , S. D. , Plewa , M. J. , Wagner , E. D. , Schoeny , R. and DeMarini , D. M. 2007 . Occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging didinfection by-products in drinking water: A review and roadmap for research . Mutat. Res. , 636 : 178 – 242 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson , S. D. , Thruston , A. D. , Krasner , S. W. , Weinberg , H. S. , Miltner , R. J. , Schenck , K. M. , Narotsky , M. G. , McKague , A. B. and Simmons , J. E. 2008 . Integrated disinfection by-products mixture research: Comprehensive characterization of water concentrates prepared from chlorinated and ozonated/postchlorinated drinking water . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 71 : 1165 – 1186 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roemer , H. C. , Weistenhofer , W. , Lohlein , D. , Geller , F. , Blomeke , B. and Golka , K. 2008 . N-Acetyltransferase 1 in colon and rectal cancer cases from an industrialized area . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 71 : 902 – 905 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rook , J. J. 1974 . Formation of haloforms during chlorination of natural waters . J. Soc. Water Treat. Exam. , 23 : 234 – 243 .
   Google Scholar
• Schottenfeld , D. and Fraumeni , J. F. 1996 . “ Cancer epidemiology and prevention ” . In , 2nd , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Simmons , J. E. , Teuschler , L. K. , Gennings , C. , Speth , T. F. , Richardson , S. D. , Miltner , R. J. , Narotsky , M. G. , Schenck , K. D. , Sidney Hunter , E. III , Hertzberg , R. C. and Rice , G. 2004 . Component-based and whole-mixture techniques for addressing the toxicity of drinking-water disinfection by-product mixtures . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 67 : 741 – 754 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teuschler , L. K. , Rice , G. E. , Wilkes , C. R. , Lipscomb , J. C. and Power , F. W. 2004 . A feasibility of cumulative risk assessment methods for drinking water disinfection by-product mixtures . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 67 : 755 – 777 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tzeng , G. H. and Wu , T. Y. 1986 . Characteristics of urbanization levels in Taiwan districts . Geogr. Res. , 12 : 287 – 323 .
   Google Scholar
• Villanueva , C. M. , Fernandez , F. , Malata , N. , Grimalt , J. O. and Kogevinas , M. 2003 . Meta-analysis of studies on individual consumption of chlorinated drinking water and bladder cancer . J. Epidemiol. Commun. Health , 57 : 166 – 173 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villanueva , C. M. , Cantor , K. P. , Cordier , S. , Jaakkola , J. J. K. , King , W. D. , Lynch , C. F. , Porru , S. and Kogevinas , M. 2004 . Disinfection byproducts and bladder cancer: A pooled analysis . Epidemiology , 15 : 357 – 367 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villanueva , C. M. , Cantor , K. P. , Grimalt , J. O. , Malats , N. , Silverman , D. , Tardon , A. , Garcia-Closas , R. , Serra , C. , Carrato , A. , Castano-Vinyals , G. , Marcos , R. , Rothman , N. , Real , F. X. , Dosemeci , M. and Kogevinas , M. 2007 . Bladder cancer and exposure to water disinfection by-products through ingestion, bathing, showering, and swimming in pools . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 165 : 148 – 156 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vinceti , M. , Fantuzzi , G. , Monici , L. , Cassinadri , M. , Predieri , G. and Aggazzotti , G. 2004 . A retrospective cohort study of trihalomethane exposure through drinking water and cancer mortality in northern Italy . Sci. Total Environ. , 330 : 47 – 53 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitaker , H. , Nieuwenhuijsen , M. J. and Best , N. 2003 . The relationship between water chloroform levels and individual uptake of chloroform: A simulation study . Environ. Health Perspect. , 111 : 688 – 694 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkins , J. R. , Reiches , N. A. and Kruse , C. W. 1979 . Organic chemical contaminants in drinking water and cancer . Am. J. Epidemiol. , 110 : 420 – 448 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang , C. Y. 1998 . Calcium and magnesium in drinking water and risk of death from cerebrovascular disease . Stroke , 29 : 411 – 414 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang , C. Y. , Chiu , H. F. , Cheng , M. F. and Tsai , S. S. 1998 . Chlorination of drinking water and cancer mortality in Taiwan . Environ. Res. , 78 : 1 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang , C. Y. and Chiu , H. F. 1998 . Calcium and magnesium in drinking water and risk of death from rectal cancer . Int. J. Cancer , 77 : 528 – 532 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang , C. Y. , Tsai , S. S. , Lai , T. C. , Hung , C. F. and Chiu , H. F. 1999 . Rectal cancer mortality and total hardness levels in Taiwan's drinking water . Environ. Res. , 80 : 311 – 316 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang , C. Y. , Xiao , Z. P. , Ho , S. C. , Wu , T. N. and Tsai , S. S. 2007 . Association between trihalomethane concentrations in drinking water and adverse pregnancy outcome in Taiwan . Environ. Res. , 104 : 390 – 395 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young , T. B. , Kanarek , M. S. and Tsiatis , A. A. 1981 . Epidemiologic study of drinking water chlorination and Wisconsin female cancer mortality . JNCI , 67 : 1191 – 1198 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zierler , S. , Danley , R. A. and Fiengold , L. 1986 . Type of disinfectant in drinking water and patterns of mortality in Massachusetts . Environ. Health Perspect. , 69 : 275 – 279 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar