Trihalomethanes in Lisbon Indoor Swimming Pools: Occurrence, Determining Factors, and Health Risk Classification

REFERENCES

• Aggazzotti , G. , Fantuzzi , G. , Righi , E. and Predieri , G. 1998 . Blood and breath analyses as biological indicators of exposure to trihalomethanes in indoor swimming pools . Sci. Total Environ. , 217 : 155 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aguiar, F., Alves, S., Barreiros, C., Duarte, M. E., Pires, A. F., Madeira, C. P., Mateus, I., Matos, A., Nobre, M. L., Noronha, V., Pacheco, P., Páscoa, S., Pinhal, H., and Ramos, C. D. 2009. Avaliação da qualidade do ar em piscinas cobertas. Oral communication, Environment and health meeting: future investigation and development, April 7, 2009, Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, Lisbon, Portugal http://www.gulbenkian.pt/media/files/FTP_files/pdfs/ambiente09/4-AntonioMatos_07-04-09.pdf (http://www.gulbenkian.pt/media/files/FTP_files/pdfs/ambiente09/4-AntonioMatos_07-04-09.pdf)
   Google Scholar
• ANSI/ASHRAE. 1999b. Standard for indoor air quality http://www.phila.gov/health/pdfs/PA_Pool_Recs.pdf (http://www.phila.gov/health/pdfs/PA_Pool_Recs.pdf)
   Google Scholar
• Balance, R. 1996. Field testing methods. In Water quality monitoring—A practical guide to the design and implementation of freshwater quality studies and monitoring programmes, eds. J. Bartram and R. Balance, chap. 6. London: UNEP/WHO www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/resourcesquality/wqmchap6.pdf (http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/resourcesquality/wqmchap6.pdf)
   Google Scholar
• Bessonneau , V. , Derbez , M. , Clément , M. and Thomas , O. 2011 . Determinants of chlorination by-products in indoor swimming pools . Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health , 215 : 76 – 85 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bisted , O. 2002 . “ Activated carbon and UV for pool water treatment ” . In 3rd International Conference on Pool Water Quality and Treatment, School of Water Sciences, Cranfield University
   Google Scholar
• Caro , J. and Gallego , M. 2007 . Assessment of exposure of workers and swimmers to trihalomethanes in an indoor swimming pool . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 41 : 4793 – 98 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , W. and Weisel , C. 1998 . Halogenated DBP concentrations in a distribution system . J. Am. Water. Works. Assoc. , 90 : 151 – 63 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chu , H. and Nieuwenhuijsen , M. J. 2002 . Distribution and determinants of trihalomethane concentrations in indoor swimming pools . Occup. Environ. Med. , 59 : 243 – 47 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Claxton , L. D. , Pegram , R. , Schenck , K. M. , Simmons , J. E. and Warren , S. H. 2008 . Integrated disinfection by-products research: Salmonella mutagenicity of water concentrates disinfected by chlorionation and ozonation/postchlorination . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 71 : 1187 – 94 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Council Directive 98/83/EC on the quality of water intended for human consumption. 1998. Off. J. Eur. Commun. L 330 41: 32–54 http://www.eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:1998:330:0032:0054:EN:PDF (http://www.eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:1998:330:0032:0054:EN:PDF)
   Google Scholar
• Deborde , M. and von Guten , U. 2008 . Reactions of chlorine with inorganic and organic compounds during water treatment—Kinetics and mechanisms: A critical review . Water Res. , 42 : 13 – 51 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• 19643 , DIN . 1997 . “ Treatment and disinfection of water used in bathing facilities—Part 1—General requirements, German Standard ” . In Deutsches Institut für Normung , Berlin : Beuth Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• DL 306/2007, which establishes water quality for human consumption. 2007. D.R. 1st Series, vol. 164 of 27/08/2007, 5747–65 http://www.dre.pt/pdf1sdip/2007/08/16400/0574705765.pdf (http://www.dre.pt/pdf1sdip/2007/08/16400/0574705765.pdf)
   Google Scholar
• DR 5/97, which regulates installation and operation of entertainment indoor aquatic environments. 1997. D.R. Series I-B, vol. 75 of 31/03/1997, 1397–1422 http://www.dre.pt/pdf1sdip/1997/03/075B00/13971422.pdf (http://www.dre.pt/pdf1sdip/1997/03/075B00/13971422.pdf)
   Google Scholar
• Erdinger , L. , Kühn , K. P. , Kirsch , F. , Feldhues , R. , Nohynek , B. and Gabrio , T. 2004 . Pathways of trihalomethane uptake in swimming pools . Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health , 207 : 571 – 75 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fantuzzi , G. , Righi , E. , Predieri , G. , Giacobazzi , P. , Mastroianni , K. and Aggazzotti , G. 2010 . Prevalence of ocular, respiratory and cutaneous symptoms in indoor swimming pool workers and exposure to disinfection by-products . Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health , 7 : 1379 – 91 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gang , D. C. , Clevenger , T. E. and Banerji , S. K. 2003 . Modeling chlorine decay in surface water . J. Environ. Informatics , 1 : 21 – 27 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Judd , S. J. and Jeffrey , J. A. 1995 . Trihalomethane formation during swimming pool water disinfection using hypobromous and hypochlorous acids . Water Res. , 29 : 1203 – 6 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim , H. , Shim , J. and Lee , S. 2002 . Formation of disinfection by-products in chlorinated swimming pool water . Chemosphere , 46 : 123 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lakind , S. J. , Richardson , S. D. and Blount , B. C. 2010 . The good, the bad and the volatile: can we have both healthy pools and healthy people? . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 44 : 3205 – 10 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee , J. , Jun , M.-J. , Lee , M.-H. , Lee , M.-H. , Eom , S.-W and Zoh , K. D. 2010 . Production of various disinfection byproducts in indoor swimming pool waters treated with different disinfection methods . Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health , 213 : 465 – 74 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee , J. , Ha , K. T. and Zoh , K. D. 2009 . Characteristics of trihalomethanes (THM) production and associated health risk assessment in swimming pool waters treated with different disinfection methods . Sci. Total Environ. , 407 : 1990 – 97 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lindstrom , A. B. , Pleil , J. D. and Berkoff , D. C. 1997 . Alveolar breath sampling and analysis to assess trihalomethane exposures during competitive swimming training . Environ. Health Perspect. , 105 : 636 – 42 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mallika , P. , Sarisak , S. and Pongsri , P. 2008 . Cancer risk assessment from exposure to trihalomethanes in tap water and swimming pool water . J. Environ. Sci. , 20 : 372 – 78 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nieuwenhuijsen , M. J. , Smith , R. , Golfinopoulos , S. , Best , N. , Bennett , J. , Aggazzotti , G. and Kogevinas , M. 2009 . Health impacts of long-term exposure to disinfection by-products in drinking water in Europe: HIWATE . J. Water Health , 7 : 185 – 207 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pawliszyn , J. 1997 . Solid phase microextraction—Theory and practice , New York , NY : Wiley-VCH .
   Google Scholar
• Rice , G. E. , Teuschler , L. K. , Bull , R. J. , Simmons , J. E. and Feder , P. I. 2009 . Evaluating the similarity of complex drinking-water disinfection by-product mixtures: Overview of the issues . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 72 : 429 – 36 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson , S. D. , Thurston , A. D. , Krasner , S. W. , Weinberg , H. S. , Miltner , R. J. , Schenck , K. M. , Narotsky , M. G. , McKague , A. B. and Simmons , J. E. 2008 . Integrated disinfection by-products mixtures research: Comprehensive characterization of water concentrates prepared from chlorinated and ozonated/postchlorinated drinking water . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 71 : 1165 – 86 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rodier , J. 2009 . L'Analyse de l'eau , Paris : Dunod .
   Google Scholar
• Sá , C. , Boaventura , R. and Pereira , I. 2011 . Analysis of trihalomethanes in water and air from indoor swimming pools using HS-SPME/ GC/ ECD . J. Environ. Sci. Health A , 46 : 355 – 63 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simmons , J. E. , Richardson , S. D. , Teuschler , L. K. , Miltner , R. J. , Speth , T. F. , Schenck , K. M. , Hunter , E. S. I II and Rice , G. 2008 . Research issues underlying the four–lab study: Integrated disinfection by-products mixures research . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A , 71 : 1125 – 32 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , V. L. , Cech , I. , Brown , J. H. and Bogdan , G. F. 1980 . Temporal variations in trihalomethane content of drinking water . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 14 : 190 – 96 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stack , M. A. , Fitzgerald , G. , O'Connell , S. and James , K. J. 2000 . Measurement of trihalomethanes in potable and reacreational waters using solid phase micro extraction with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry . Chemosphere , 41 : 1821 – 26 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2003. Drinking water contaminants www.epa.gov/safewater/contaminants/index.html (http://www.epa.gov/safewater/contaminants/index.html)
   Google Scholar
• Uyan , Z. S. , Carraro , S. , Piacentini , G. and Baraldi , E. 2009 . Swimming pool, respiratory health and childhood asthma: Should we change our beliefs? . Pediatr. Pulmonol. , 44 : 31 – 37 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Villanueva , C. M. , Gagniere , B. , Monfort , C. , Nieuwenhuijsen , M. J. and Cordier , S. 2007 . Sources of variability in levels and exposure to trihalomethanes . Environ. Res. , 103 : 211 – 220 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weaver , W. A. , Li , J. , Wen , Y. , Johnston , J. , Blatchley , M. R. and Blatchley , E. R. I II. 2009 . Volatile disinfection by-products analysis from chlorinated indoor swimming pools . Water Res. , 43 : 3308 – 18 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• World Health Organization . 2008 . Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Volume 1: Recommendations , Geneva : WHO .
   Google Scholar
• World Health Organization . 2006 . Guidelines for safe recreational water environments. Volume 2: Swimming pools and similar environments , Geneva : WHO .
   Google Scholar
• Xie , Y. 2004 . Disinfection byproducts in drinking water: Formation, analysis and control , Boca Raton , FL : CRC Press .
   Google Scholar
• Xu , X. , Mariano , T. M. , Laskin , J. D. and Weisel , C. P. 2002 . Percutaneous absorption of trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids and haloketones . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 184 : 19 – 26 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xue , S. , Zhao , Q.-L , Wei , L.-L and Jia , T. 2008 . Effect of bromide ion on isolated fractions of dissolved organic matter in secondary effluent during chlorination . J. Hazard. Mater. , 157 : 25 – 33 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zwiener , C. , Richardson , S. D. , De Marini , D. M. , Grummt , T. , Glauner , T. and Frimmel , F. H. 2007 . Drowning in disinfection byproducts? Acessing swimming pool water . Environ. Sci. Technol. , 41 : 363 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar