Microbiological Evaluation of Different Strategies for Management of Snakes in Captivity

REFERENCES

• Arroyo , O. , Bolaños , R. and Mufioz , G. 1980 . The bacterial flora of venoms and mouth cavities of Costa Rica snakes . Bull. Pan. Am. Health Organ. , 14 : 280 – 85 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ashley , B. D. and Burchfield , P. M. 1968 . Maintenance of a snake colony for the purpose of venom extraction . Toxicon , 5 : 267 – 75 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barraviera , B. 2011 . How to overcome the gap between basic research and clinical trials? . J. Venom. Anim. Toxins Trop. Dis. , 17 : 361
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barros , L. C. , Ferreira , R. S. , Barraviera , S. R. C. S. , Stolf , H. O. , Thomazini-Santos , I. A. , Mendes-Giannini , M. J. S. , Toscano , E. and Barraviera , B. 2009 . A new fibrin sealant from Crotalus durissus terrificus venom: Applications in medicine . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B , 12 : 553 – 71 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barros , L. C. , Soares , A. M. , Costa , F. L. , Rodrigues , V. M. , Fuly , A. L. , Giglio , J. R. , Gallacci , M. , Thomazini-Santos , I. A. , Barraviera , S. R. C. S. , Barraviera , B. and Ferreira Junior , R. S. 2011 . Biochemical and biological evaluation of gyroxin isolated from Crotalus durissus terrificus venom . J. Venom. Anim. Toxins Trop. Dis. , 17 : 23 – 33 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bastos , H. M. , Lopes , L. F. L. , Gattamorta , M. A. and Matushima , E. R. 2008 . Prevalence of enterobacteria in Bothrops jararaca São Paulo state: Microbiological survey and antimicrobial resistance standards . Acta Sci. Biol. Sci. , 30 : 321 – 26 .
   Google Scholar
• Barnett , J. A. , Payne , R. W. and Yarrow , D. 2000 . Yeasts: Characteristics and identification , London , , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Biscola , N. P. , Fornazari , F. , Saad , E. , Richini-Pereira , V. B. , Campagner , M. V. , Langoni , H. , Barraviera , B. and Ferreira , R. S. Jr. 2011 . Serological investigation and PCR in detection of pathogenic leptospires in snakes . Pesq. Vet. Bras. , 31 : 806 – 11 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyer , D. M. , Mitchell , L. A. and Murphy , J. B. 1989 . Reproduction and husbandry of the bushmaster Lachesis muta muta at the Dallas Zoo . Int. Zool Yearbook , 28 : 190 – 94 .
   Google Scholar
• Brazil , V. 1905 . Contribution à l'Etude de l' Intoxication d'origine Ophidienne , Paris , , France : A. Maloine .
   Google Scholar
• Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute . 2010 . Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing , M100 – S20 . Wayne , PA : CLSI . 20th information supplement
   Google Scholar
• Cowan , D. F. 1968 . Diseases of captive reptiles . J. Am.Vet. Med. Assoc. , 153 : 848 – 59 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferreira , R. S. Jr. , Biscola , N. P. , Campagner , M. V. and Barraviera , B. 2010 . How to raise snakes in captivity . Vet. Microbiol. , 141 : 189
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ferreira , R. S. Jr. , Siqueira , A. K. , Campagner , M. V. , Salerno , T. , Soares , T. C. S. , Lucheis , S. B. , Paes , A. C. and Barraviera , B. 2009 . Comparison of wildlife and captivity rattlesnakes (Crotalus durissus terrificus) microbiota . Pesq. Vet. Bras. , 12 : 999 – 1003 .
   Google Scholar
• Gugagni , H. C. and Okafor , J. I. 1980 . Mycotic flora of the intestine and other internal organs of certain reptiles and amphibians with special reference to characterization of Basidiobolus isolates . Mykosen , 23 : 260 – 68 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Harvey , R. W. S. and Price , T. H. 1983 . Salmonella isolation from reptilian faeces: A discussion of appropriate cultural techniques . J. Hyg. Camb. , 91 : 25 – 32 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jacobson , E. R. , Gaskin , J. M. , Wells , S. , Bowler , K. and Schumacher , J. 1992 . Epizootic of ophidian paramixovirus in a zoological collection: Pathological, microbiological and serological findings . J. Zool Wildl. Dis. , 23 : 318 – 27 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobson , E. R. and Cheatwood , J. L. 2000 . Mycotic diseases of reptiles . Semin. Avian Exot. Pet. Med. , 9 : 94 – 101 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobson , E. R. and Samuelson , D. A. 2007 . “ Identifying reptiles pathogens using electron microscopy ” . In Infectious diseases and pathology of reptiles: Color atlas and text , Edited by: Jacobson , E. R. 299 – 350 . Boca Raton , FL : CRC Press .
   Google Scholar
• Koneman , E. W. , Allen , S. D. , Janda , W. M. , Schreckenberger , P. C. and Winn , W. C. Jr. 2006 . Color atlas and textbook of diagnostic microbiology , Philadelphia , PA : J. B. Lippincott .
   Google Scholar
• Kurtzmann , C. P. and Fell , J. W. 1998 . The yeast: A taxonomic study , New York , NY : Elsevier .
   Google Scholar
• Leloup , P. 1973 . Essais de rationalisation dans le maintien dún serpentarum a but industriel . Acta Trop. , 30 : 281 – 311 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Leloup , P. 1975 . Observation sur la reproduction de Bothrops moojeni en captivité . Acta Zool. Pathol. Antverp. , 65 : 173 – 201 .
   Google Scholar
• Lillywhite , H. B. 1987 . “ Temperature, energetic, and physiological ecology ” . In Snakes: Ecology and evolutionary biology , New York , NY : New York, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 529 p .
   Google Scholar
• Lima , M. E. , Fortes-Dias , C. L. , Carlini , C. R. and Guimarães , J. A. 2010 . Toxinology in Brazil: A big challenge for a rich biodiversity . Toxicon , 56 : 1084 – 91 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mc Cullough , M. J. , Di Salvo , A. F. , Clemons , K. V. , Park , P. and Stevens , D. A. 2000 . Molecular epidemiology of Blastomyces dermatitidis . Clin. Infect. Dis. , 30 : 328 – 35 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Middelhoven , W. J. , Scorzetti , G. and Fell , J. W. 2004 . Systematic of the anamorphic basidyomicetous yeast genus Trichosporon Behrend with the description of five novel species: Trichosporon vadense, T. smithiae, T. dehoogii, T. scarabaeorum and T. gamsii . Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. , 54 : 975 – 86 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Migaki , G. , Jacobson , E. R. , Casey , HW and Jacobson , E. R. 1984 . “ Fungal diseases in reptiles ” . In Diseases of amphibians and reptiles , Edited by: Hoff , G. L. and Frye , F. L. 183 – 204 . New York , NY : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Mitchell , M. A. 2004 . Snake care and husbandry . Vet. Clin. Exot. Anim. , 7 : 421 – 26 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mitchell , M. A. 2006 . “ Therapeutics ” . In Reptile medicine and surgery, chap. 36 , Philadelphia , PA : Saunders Co .
   Google Scholar
• New South Wales Department of Environment and Climate Change . 2008 . Hygiene protocol for the control of disease in captive snakes , Sydney , NSW : Australia .
   Google Scholar
• Pankey , G. A. 2005 . Tigecycline . J. Antimicrob. Chemother. , 56 : 470 – 80 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paré , J. A. and Jacobson , E. 2007 . “ Mycotic diseases of reptiles ” . In Infectious diseases and pathology of reptiles: Color atlas and text , Edited by: Jacobson , E. 527 – 70 . Boca Raton , FL : CRC Press .
   Google Scholar
• Paré , J. A. , Sigler , L. , Rypien , K. L. and Gibas , C. F. 2003 . Cutaneous mycobiota of captive squamate reptiles with notes on the scarcity of Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii . J. Herpetol. Med. Surg. , 13 : 10 – 15 .
   Google Scholar
• Pasmans , F. , Blahak , S. , Martel , A. and Pantchev , N. 2008 . Introducing reptiles into a captive collection: The role of the veterinarian . Rev. Vet. J. , 175 : 53 – 68 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pfleger , S. , Benyr , G. , Sommer , R. and Hassl , A. 2003 . Pattern of Salmonella excretion in amphibians and reptiles in a vivarium . Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health , 206 : 53 – 59 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddacliff , G. L. , Cunningham , M. and Hartley , W. J. 1993 . Systemic infection with a yeast-like organism in captive banded rock rattlesnakes (Crotalus lepidus klauberi) . J. Wildl. Dis. , 29 : 145 – 49 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ridell , R. W. 1950 . Permanent stained mycological preparations obtained slide culture . Mycologia , 42 : 265 – 70 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenthal , L. M. and Mader , D. R. 2006 . “ Microbiology ” . In Reptile medicine and surgery , Edited by: Mader , D. R. 217 – 38 . Philadelphia , PA : Saunders Co .
   Google Scholar
• Rossi , J. V. 2006 . “ General husbandry and management II ” . In Reptile medicine and surgery , Philadelphia , PA : Saunders Co . chap. 5
   Google Scholar
• Schildger , B. J. , Frank , H. , Göbel , T. H. Y. and Weiss , R. 1991 . Mycotic infections of the integument and inner organs in reptiles . Herpetopathology , 2 : 81 – 97 .
   Google Scholar
• Soveri , T. and Seuna , E. R. 1986 . Aerobic oral bacteria in healthy captive snakes . Acta Vet. Scand. , 27 : 172 – 81 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• SAS Institute, Inc . 2009 . Jump, v. 8.02 , Cary , NC : SAS Institute, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Warrel , A. D. 2010 . Snake bite . Lancet , 375 : 77 – 88 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White , T. J. , Bruns , T. , Lee , S. and Taylor , J. 1990 . “ Amplification and direct sequencing of fungal ribosomal RNA genes for phylogenetics ” . In PCR protocols: A guide to methods and applications , Edited by: Innis , M. A. , Gelfand , D. H. , Sninsky , J. J. and White , T. J. 315 – 22 . San Diego , CA : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Woodford , M. H. 2000 . Quarantine and health screening protocols for wildlife prior to translocation and release into the wild , Geneva , , Switzerland : European Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians .
   Google Scholar