3D printing of musculoskeletal tissues: impact on safety and health at work

References

• Afshar-Mohajer, N., C. Y. Wu, T. Ladun, D. A. Rajon, and Y. Huang. 2015. Characterization of particulate matters and total VOC emissions from a binder jetting 3D printer. Build. Environ. 93:293–301. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2015.07.013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andujar, P., A. Simon-Deckers, F. Galateau-Salle, B. Fayard, G. Beaune, B. Clin, M. A. Billon-Galland, O. Durupthy, J. C. Pairon, J. Doucet, et al. 2014. Role of metal oxide nanoparticles in histopathological changes observed in the lungs of welders. Part. Fibre Toxicol. 1:23. doi:10.1186/1743-8977-11-23.
   Google Scholar
• Ataee, A., Y. Li, D. Fraser, G. Song, and C. Wen. 2018. Anisotropic Ti-6Al-4V gyroid scaffolds manufactured by electron beam melting (EBM) for bone implant applications. Mater Des 137:1–480. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2017.10.040.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azimi, P., D. Zhao, C. Pouzet, N. E. Crain, and B. Stephens. 2016. Emissions of ultrafine particles and volatile organic compounds from commercially available desktop three-dimensional printers with multiple filaments. Sci. Technol. 50:1260–68. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b04983.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakand, S., and A. Hayes. 2016. Toxicological considerations, toxicity assessment, and risk management of inhaled nanoparticles. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 17:E929. doi:10.3390/ijms17060929.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandyopadhyay, A., B. V. Krishna, W. Xue, and S. Bose. 2009. Application of laser engineered net shaping (LENS) to manufacture porous and functionally graded structures for load bearing implants. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 20:29–34. doi:10.1007/s10856-008-3478-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bose, S., S. Vahabzadeh, and A. Bandyopadhyay. 2013. Bone tissue engineering using 3D printing. Bull. Mater. Today. 16:496–504. doi:10.1016/j.mattod.2013.11.017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bours, J., B. Adzima, S. Gladwin, J. Cabral, and S. Mau. 2017. Addressing hazardous implications of additive manufacturing: Complementing life cycle assessment with a framework for evaluating direct human health and environmental impacts. J. Ind. Ecol. 21:S25–S36. doi:10.1111/jiec.12587.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradbrook, S., M. Duckworth, P. Ellwood, M. Miedzinski, and J. Reynolds. 2013. Green jobs and occupational safety and health: Foresight on new and emerging risks associated with new technologies by 2020. Report. European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (EU-OSHA), BeIgium, SSN 1831-9343.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, T. D., P. D. Dalton, and D. W. Hutmacher. 2016. Melt electrospinning today: An opportune time for an emerging polymer process. Prog. Polym. Sci. 56:116–66. doi:10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2016.01.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrley, P., B. J. Gorge, W. K. Boyes, and K. Rogers. 2019. Particle emissions from fused deposition modeling 3D printers: Evaluation and meta-analysis. Sci. Total Environ. 655:395–407. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.070.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Čapek, J., M. Machová, M. Fousová, J. Kubásek, D. Vojtěch, J. Fojt, E. Jablonská, J. Lipov, and T. Ruml. 2016. Highly porous, low elastic modulus 316L stainless steel scaffold prepared by selective laser melting. Mater. Sci. Eng. C. 69:631–39. doi:10.1016/j.msec.2016.07.027.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chan, F. L., R. House, I. Kudla, J. C. Lipszyc, N. Rajaram, and S. M. Tarlo. 2018. Health survey of employees regularly using 3D printers. Occup. Med. 68:211–14. doi:10.1093/occmed/kqy042.
   Google Scholar
• Chen, C. H., M. Y. Lee, V. B. Shyu, Y. C. Chen, C. T. Chen, and J. P. Chen. 2014. Surface modification of polycaprolactone scaffolds fabricated via selective laser sintering for cartilage tissue engineering. Mater. Sci. Eng. C. 40:389–97. doi:10.1016/j.msec.2014.04.029.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Commission Recommendation of 18th October 2011 on the definition of nanomaterial. Text with European Economic Area (EEA) relevance.
   Google Scholar
• Consolidated version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union-Protocols-Annexes-Declarations annexed to the Final Act of the Intergovernmental Conference which adopted the Treaty of Lisbon, signed on 13 December 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Creytens, K., L. Gilissen, S. Huygens, and A. Goossens. 2017. A new application for epoxy resins resulting in occupational allergic contact dermatitis: The three-dimensional printing industry. Contact Derm. 77:325–51. doi:10.1111/cod.12819.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cui, X., G. Gao, T. Yonezawa, and G. Dai. 2014. Human cartilage tissue fabrication using three-dimensional inkjet printing technology. J. Vis. Exp. 88: e51294.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Current Intelligence Bulletin 60 Interim Guidance for Medical Screening and Hazard Surveillance for Workers Potentially Exposed to Engineered Nanoparticles. 2009 DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 2009-116.
   Google Scholar
• Dalton, P. D. 2017. Melt electro-writing with additive manufacturing principles. Curr. Opin. Biomed. Eng. 2:49–57. doi:10.1016/j.cobme.2017.05.007.
   Google Scholar
• Daly, A. C., G. M. Cunniffe, B. N. Sathy, O. Jeon, E. Alsberg, and D. J. Kelly. 2016. 3D bioprinting of developmentally inspired templates for whole bone organ engineering. Adv. Health. Mater. 5:2353–62. doi:10.1002/adhm.201600182.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Ruijter, M., A. Ribeiro, I. Dokter, M. Castilho, and J. Malda. 2019. Simultaneous micropatterning of fibrous meshes and bioinks for the fabrication of living tissue constructs. Adv. Healthcare Mater. (8):1800418. doi:10.1002/adhm.201800418.
   Google Scholar
• Dean, D., J. Wallace, A. Siblani, M. O. Wang, K. Kim, A. G. Mikos, and J. P. Fisher. 2012. Continuous digital light processing (cDLP): Highly accurate additive manufacturing of tissue engineered bone scaffolds. Virtual Phys. Prototyp. 7:13–24. doi:10.1080/17452759.2012.673152.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Directive 1997/23/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 May 1997 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States concerning pressure equipment.
   Google Scholar
• Directive 1998/24/EC of 7 April 1998 on the protection of the health and safety of workers from the risks related to chemical agents at work (fourteenth individual Directive within the meaning of Article 16 (1)of Directive 89/391/EEC).
   Google Scholar
• Directive 2000/54/EC-Biological agents at work of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 September 2000 on the protection of workers from risks related to exposure to biological agents at work (seventh individual directive within the meaning of Article 16 (1)of Directive 89/391/EEC), OJ L 262.
   Google Scholar
• Directive 2002/49/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 June 2002 relating to the assessment and management of environmental noise - Declaration by the Commission in the Conciliation Committee on the Directive relating to the assessment and management of environmental noise.
   Google Scholar
• Directive 2006/25/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2006 on the minimum health and safety requirements regarding the exposure of workers to risks arising from physical agents (artificial optical radiation) (19th individual Directive within the meaning of Article 16 (1)of Directive 89/391/EEC).
   Google Scholar
• Directive 2006/42/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 May 2006 on machinery, and amending Directive 95/16/EC.
   Google Scholar
• Directive 2013/35/EU-electromagnetic fields of 26 June 2013 on the minimum health and safety requirements regarding the exposure of workers to the risks arising from physical agents (electromagnetic fields) (20th individual Directive within the meaning of Article 16 (1)of Directive 89/391/EEC) and repealing Directive 2004/40/EC.
   Google Scholar
• Directive 2013/59/Euratom- protection against ionizing radiation of 5 December 2013 laying down basic safety standards for protection against the dangers arising from exposure to ionizing radiation, and repealing Directives 89/618/Euratom, 90/641/Euratom, 96/29/Euratom, 97/43/Euratom and 2003/122/Euratom.
   Google Scholar
• Directive 2014/35/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 February 2014 on the harmonization of the laws of the Member States relating to the making available on the market of electrical equipment designed for use within certain voltage limits.
   Google Scholar
• Du, D., T. Asaoka, T. Ushida, and K. S. Furukawa. 2014. Fabrication and perfusion culture of anatomically shaped artificial bone using stereolithography. Biofabrication 6:45002. doi:10.1088/1758-5082/6/4/045002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Du, Y., H. Liu, Q. Yang, S. Wang, J. Wang, J. Ma, I. Noh, A. G. Mikos, and S. Zhang. 2017. Selective laser sintering scaffold with hierarchical architecture and gradient composition for osteochondral repair in rabbits. Biomaterials 137:37–48. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2017.05.021.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elder, A., R. Gelein, V. Silva, T. Feikert, L. Opanashuk, J. Carter, R. Potter, A. Maynard, Y. Ito, J. Finkelstein, et al. 2006. Translocation of inhaled ultrafine manganese oxide particles to the central nervous system. Environ. Health. Perspect. 114:1172–78. doi:10.1289/ehp.9030.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• EU general risk assessment methodology (Action 5 of Multi-Annual Action Plan for the surveillance of products in the EU (COM(2013)76). 2016. European Commission.
   Google Scholar
• Filardo, G., M. Petretta, C. Cavallo, L. Roseti, S. Durante, U. Albisinni, and B. Grigolo. 2019. Patient-specific meniscus prototype based on 3D bioprinting of human cell-laden scaffold. Bone Joint Res 8:101–06. doi:10.1302/2046-3758.82.BJR-2018-0134.R1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao, C., C. Wang, H. Jin, Z. Wang, Z. Li, C. Shi, Y. Leng, F. Yang, H. Liu, and J. Wang. 2018. Additive manufacturing technique-designed metallic porous implants for clinical application in orthopedics. RSC Adv 8:25210–27. doi:10.1039/C8RA04815K.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gao, G., T. Yonezawa, K. Hubbell, G. Dai, and X. Cui. 2015. Inkjet-bioprinted acrylated peptides and PEG hydrogel with human mesenchymal stem cells promote robust bone and cartilage formation with minimal printhead clogging. Biotechnol. J. 10:1568–77. doi:10.1002/biot.201400635.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gibbs, D. M. R., M. Vaezi, S. Yang, and R. O. C. Oreffo. 2014. Hope versus hype: What can additive manufacturing realistically offer trauma and orthopedic surgery? Regen. Med. 9:535–49. doi:10.2217/rme.14.20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, A. D., S. N. Olof, M. J. Burke, J. P. K. Armstrong, E. A. Mikhailova, J. G. Nicholson, S. J. Box, F. G. Szele, A. W. Perriman, and H. Bayley. 2017. High-resolution patterned cellular constructs by droplet-based 3d printing. Sci. Rep. 7:7004. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-06358-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gruene, M., M. Pflaum, C. Hess, S. Diamantouros, S. Schlie, A. Deiwick, L. Koch, M. Wilhelmi, S. Jockenhoevel, A. Haverich, et al. 2011. Laser printing of three-dimensional multicellular arrays for swtudies of cell-cell and cell-environment interactions. Tissue Eng. C. 1:973–82. doi:10.1089/ten.tec.2011.0185.
   Google Scholar
• Gu, B. K., D. J. Choi, S. J. Park, M. S. Kim, C. M. Kang, and C. H. Kim. 2016. 3-Dimensional bioprinting for tissue engineering applications. Biomater. Res. 20:12. doi:10.1186/s40824-016-0058-2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gudapati, H., M. Dey, and I. Ozbolat. 2016. A comprehensive review on droplet-based bioprinting: Past, present and future. Biomaterials 102:20–42. doi:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.06.012.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guidance on the protection of the health and safety of workers from the potential risks related to nanomaterials at work. Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion. European Commission. 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Guillaume, O., M. A. Geven, C. M. Sprecher, V. A. Stadelmann, D. W. Grijpma, T. T. Tang, L. Qin, Y. Lai, M. Alini, J. D. de Bruijn, et al. 2017. Surface-enrichment with hydroxyapatite nanoparticles in stereolithography-fabricated composite polymer scaffolds promotes bone repair. Acta Biomater 54:386–98. doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2017.03.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gwinn, R. M., and V. Vallyathan. 2006. Nanoparticles: Health effects-pros and cons. Environ. Health Perspect. 114:1818–25. doi:10.1289/ehp.8871.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hierarchy of Controls. 2019 July 12. U.S. national institute for occupational safety and health. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/hierarchy/default.html.
   Google Scholar
• Hochleitner, G., F. Chen, C. Blum, P. D. Dalton, B. Amsden, and J. Groll. 2018. Melt electrowriting below the critical translation speed to fabricate crimped elastomer scaffolds with non-linear extension behaviour mimicking that of ligaments and tendons. Acta Biomater 72:110–20. doi:10.1016/j.actbio.2018.03.023.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsieh, Y. H., B. Y. Shen, Y. H. Wang, B. Lin, H. M. Lee, and M. F. Hsieh. 2018. Healing of osteochondral defects implanted with biomimetic scaffolds of poly(ε-caprolactone)/hydroxyapatite and glycidyl-methacrylate-modified hyaluronic acid in a minipig. Int. J Mol. Sci. 19:1125. doi:10.3390/ijms19041125.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, Y., M. C. Leu, J. Mazumder, and A. Donmez. 2015. Additive manufacturing: Current state, future potential, gaps and needs, and recommendations. J. Manuf. Sci. 137:014001–1. doi:10.1115/1.4028725.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hubbard, D., and D. Evans. 2010. Problems with scoring methods and ordinal scales in risk assessment. IBM. J. Res. Dev. 54:2–10. doi:10.1147/JRD.2010.2042914.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• ISO/ASTM 52900:2015 Standard Terminology for Additive Manufacturing -General Principles-Terminology-Section 2.2 Process categories.
   Google Scholar
• Jeong, C. G., and A. Atala. 2015. 3D printing and biofabrication for load bearing tissue engineering. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 881:3–14. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-22345-2_1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jordahl, J. H., L. Solorio, H. Sun, S. Ramcharan, C. B. Teeple, H. R. Haley, K. J. Lee, T. W. Eyster, G. D. Luker, P. H. Krebsbach, et al. 2018. 3D jet writing: Functional microtissues based on tessellated scaffold architectures. Adv. Mater. 30:1707196. doi:10.1002/adma.201707196.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keriquel, V., H. Oliveira, M. Rémy, S. Ziane, S. Delmond, B. Rousseau, S. Rey, S. Catros, J. Amédée, F. Guillemot, et al. 2017. In situ printing of mesenchymal stromal cells, by laser-assisted bioprinting, for in vivo bone regeneration applications. Sci. Rep. 7:1778. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-01914-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kermanizadeh, A., I. Gosens, L. MacCalman, H. Johnston, P. H. Danielsen, N. R. Jacobsen, A.-G. Lenz, T. Fernandes, R. P. F. Schins, F. R. Cassee, et al. 2016. A multilaboratory toxicological assessment of a panel of 10 engineered nanomaterials to human health- ENPRA Project-the highlights, limitations, and current and future challenges. J Toxicol Environ Health B 19:1–28. doi:10.1080/10937404.2015.1126210.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, Y., C. Yoon, S. Ham, J. Park, S. Kim, O. Kwon, and P. J. Tsai. 2015. Emissions of nanoparticles and gaseous material from 3d printer operation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 49:12044–53. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b02805.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mellin, P., C. Jönsson, M. Åkermo, P. Fernberg, E. Nordenberg, H. Brodin, and A. Strondl. 2016. Nano-sized by-products from metal 3D printing, composite manufacturing and fabric production. J. Clean. Prod. 139:1224–33. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.08.141.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mendes, L., A. Kangas, K. Kukko, B. Mølgaard, A. Säämänen, T. Kanerva, I. F. Ituarte, M. Huhtiniemi, H. Stockmann‐Juvala, J. Partanen, et al. 2017. Characterization of emissions from a desktop 3D printer. J. Ind. Ecol 21:S94–S106. doi:10.1111/jiec.2017.21.issue-S1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moran, C. J., C. Pascual-Garrido, S. Chubinskaya, H. G. Potter, R. F. Warren, B. J. Cole, and S. A. Rodeo. 2014. Restoration of articular cartilage. J. Bone Jt. Surg. 96:336–44. doi:10.2106/JBJS.L.01329.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mouser, V. H. M., A. Abbadessa, R. Levato, W. E. Hennink, T. Vermonden, D. Gawlitta, and J. Malda. 2017. Development of a thermosensitive HAMA-containing bio-ink for the fabrication of composite cartilage repair constructs. Biofabrication 9:015026.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulford, J. S., S. Babazadeh, and N. Mackay. 2016. Three-dimensional printing in orthopedic surgery: Review of current and future applications. ANZ J. Surg. 86:648–53. doi:10.1111/ans.13533.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murphy, S. V., and A. Atala. 2014. 3D bioprinting of tissues and organs. Nat. Biotechnol. 32:773–85. doi:10.1038/nbt.2958.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Namkung, E., and B. E. Rittmann. 1987. Estimating volatile organic compound emissions from publicly owned treatment works. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 59:670–78.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) method according to UNI EN 1005-2 and ISO 11228-1 standard series 1993.
   Google Scholar
• Navarro, M., A. Michiardi, O. Castaño, and J. A. Planell. 2008. Biomaterials in orthopaedics. J. R. Soc. Interface. 5:1137–58. doi:10.1098/rsif.2008.0151.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nowicki, M. A., N. J. Castro, M. W. Plesniak, and L. G. Zhang. 2016. 3D printing of novel osteochondral scaffolds with graded microstructure. Nanotechnology 27:414001. doi:10.1088/0957-4484/27/36/365202.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nurmatov, U. B., N. Tagiyeva, S. Semple, G. Devereux, and A. Sheikh. 2015. Volatile organic compounds and risk of asthma and allergy: A systematic review. Eur. Respir. Rev. 24:92–101. doi:10.1183/09059180.00000714.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oberdörster, G. 2001. Pulmonary effects of inhaled ultrafine particles. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health. 74:1–8.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oberdörster, G., E. Oberdörster, and J. Oberdörster. 2005. Nanotoxicology: An emerging discipline evolving from studies of ultrafine particles. Environ. Health Perspect. 113:823–39. doi:10.1289/ehp.7339.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Occupational Repetitive Action (OCRA) index according to standard series EN 1005 and ISO11228-1-2-3 2007.
   Google Scholar
• OHSAS 18001:2007, Occupational health and safety management systems - Requirements. 2007. Occupational health and safety assessment series ICS 03.100.01; 13.100. OHSAS Project Group.
   Google Scholar
• Pappas, G. P., R. J. Herbert, W. Henderson, J. Koenig, B. Stover, and S. Barnhart. 2000. The respiratory effects of volatile organic compounds. Int. J. Occup. Environ. Health. 6:1–8. doi:10.1179/oeh.2000.6.1.1.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Peixe, T. S., E. de Souza Nascimento, K. L. Schofield, A. S. A. Arcuri, and R. P. Bulcão. 2015. Nanotoxicology and exposure in the occupational setting. Occup. Dis. Environ. Med. 3:35–48. doi:10.4236/odem.2015.33005.
   Google Scholar
• Pillai, M. M., J. Gopinathan, R. Selvakumar, and A. Bhattacharyya. 2018. Human knee meniscus regeneration strategies: A review on recent advances. Curr. Osteoporos. Rep. 16:224–35. doi:10.1007/s11914-018-0436-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Position Statement on emerging and newly identified health risks to be drawn to the attention of the European Commission. 2014. Scientific committee on emerging and newly-identified health risks SCENIHR. Publication office of the EU.
   Google Scholar
• Rao, C., G. Fu, P. Zhao, N. Sharmin, H. Gu, and J. Fu. 2017. Capturing PM 2.5 emissions from 3d printing via nanofiber-based air filter. Sci. Rep. 7:10366. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-10995-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Risk Management for Replication Devices. National Institute of Standard Technology (NIST) Internal Report (NISTIR) 8023. 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Roseti, L., C. Cavallo, G. Desando, V. Parisi, M. Petretta, I. Bartolotti, and B. Grigolo. 2018. Three-dimensional bioprinting of cartilage by the use of stem cells: A strategy to improve regeneration. Materials 11 (pii):E 1749. doi:10.3390/ma11081451.
   Google Scholar
• Roseti, L., V. Parisi, M. Petretta, C. Cavallo, G. Desando, I. Bartolotti, and B. Grigolo. 2017. Scaffolds for bone tissue engineering: State of the art and new perspectives. Mater. Sci. Eng. C Mater. Biol. Appl. 78:1246–62. doi:10.1016/j.msec.2017.05.017.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roy, R., S. Kumar, A. Tripathi, M. Das, and P. D. Dwivedi. 2013. Interactive threats of nanoparticles to the biological system. Immunol. Lett. 158:79–87. doi:10.1016/j.imlet.2013.11.019.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabatino, R. 2014. Metodologia per la valutazione dei rischi–Inail. Last Modified Jul 30, 2014. Accessed March 29, 2019. https://www.certifico.com/sicurezza-lavoro/documenti-sicurezza/64-documenti-enti/589-metodologia-per-la-valutazione-dei-rischi-inail.
   Google Scholar
• Schemitsch, E. H. 2017. Size matters: Defining critical in bone defect size! J. Orthop. Trauma 31:S20–S22. doi:10.1097/BOT.0000000000000978.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schubert, C., M. C. van Langeveld, and L. A. Donoso. 2014. Innovations in 3D printing: A 3D overview from optics to organs. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 98:159–61. doi:10.1136/bjophthalmol-2013-304446.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seitz, H., W. Rieder, S. Irsen, B. Leukers, and C. J. Tille. 2005. Three-dimensional printing of porous ceramic scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Biomed. Mater. Res. B Appl. Biomater. 74:782–88. doi:10.1002/jbm.b.30291.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sharma, A., G. Desando, M. Petretta, S. Chawla, I. Bartolotti, C. Manferdini, F. Paolella, E. Gabusi, D. Trucco, S. Ghosh, et al. 2019. Investigating the role of sustained calcium release in silk-gelatin- based three-dimensional bioprinted constructs for enhancing the osteogenic ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng 5:1518–33. differentiation of human bone marrow derived mesenchymal stromal cells.
   Google Scholar
• Sing, S. L., J. An, W. Y. Yeong, and F. E. Wiria. 2016. Laser and electron‐beam powder‐bed additive manufacturing of metallic implants: A review on processes, materials and designs. J. Orthop. Res. 34:369–85. doi:10.1002/jor.23075.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stefaniak, A. B., L. N. Bowers, A. K. Knepp, T. P. Luxton, D. M. Peloquin, E. J. Baumann, J. E. Ham, J. R. Wells, A. R. Johnson, R. F. LeBouf, et al. 2019a. Particle and vapor emissions from VAT photopolymerization desktop-scale 3-dimensional printers. J. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 16:1–13. doi:10.1080/15459624.2019.1612068.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stefaniak, A. B., A. R. Johnson, S. Du Preez, D. R. Hammond, J. R. Wells, J. E. Ham, R. F. LeBouf, S. B. Martin Jr., M. G. Duling, L. N. Bowers, et al. 2019b. Insights into emissions and exposures from use of industrial-scale additive manufacturing machines. Saf. Health Work 10:229–36. doi:10.1016/j.shaw.2018.10.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stefaniak, A. B., R. F. LeBouf, M. G. Duling, J. Yi, A. B. Abukabda, C. R. McBride, and T. R. Nurkiewicz. 2017. Inhalation exposure to three-dimensional printer emissions stimulates acute hypertension and microvascular dysfunction. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 335:1–5. doi:10.1016/j.taap.2017.09.016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinle, P. 2016. Characterization of emissions from a desktop 3D printer and indoor air measurements in office settings. J. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 13:121–32. doi:10.1080/15459624.2015.1091957.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephens, B., P. Azimi, Z. El Orch, and T. Ramos. 2013. Ultrafine particle emissions from desktop 3D printers. Atmos. Environ. 79:334–39. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.06.050.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tack, P., J. Victor, P. Gemmel, and L. Annemans. 2016. 3D-printing techniques in a medical setting: A systematic literature review. BioMed. Eng. OnLine. 15:115. doi:10.1186/s12938-016-0236-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tappa, K., and U. Jammalamadaka. 2018. Novel biomaterials used in medical 3D printing techniques. J. Funct. Biomater. 9:17. doi:10.3390/jfb9010017.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trombetta, R., J. A. Inzana, E. M. Schwarz, S. L. Kates, and H. A. Awad. 2016. 3D Printing of calcium phosphate ceramics for bone tissue engineering and drug delivery. Ann. Biomed. Eng. 45:23–44. doi:10.1007/s10439-016-1678-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trout, D. B., and P. A. Schulte. 2010. Medical surveillance, exposure registries, and epidemiologic research for workers exposed to nanomaterials. Toxicology 269:128–35. doi:10.1016/j.tox.2009.12.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Väisänen, A. J. K., M. Hyttinen, S. Ylönen, and L. Alonen. 2019. Occupational exposure to gaseous and particulate contaminants originating from additive manufacturing of liquid, powdered and filament plastic materials and related post-processes. J. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 16:258–71. doi:10.1080/15459624.2018.1557784.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Varady, N. H., and A. J. Grodzinsky. 2016. Osteoarthritis year in review 2015: Mechanics. Osteoarthr. Cartil. 24:27–35. doi:10.1016/j.joca.2015.08.018.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ventola, C. L. 2014. Medical applications for 3D printing: Current and projected uses. Pharmacol. Ther. 39:704–11.
   Google Scholar
• Xiong, R., Z. Zhang, W. Chai, Y. Huang, and D. B. Chrisey. 2015. Free form drop-on-demand laser printing of 3D alginate and cellular constructs. Biofabrication 7:045011. doi:10.1088/1758-5090/7/4/045011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yang, Y., G. Wang, H. Liang, C. Gao, S. Peng, L. Shen, and C. Shuai. 2018. Additive manufacturing of bone scaffolds. Int. J. Bioprint 5:148. doi:10.18063/ijb.v5i1.148.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yeo, M., and G. H. Kim. 2018. Anisotropically aligned cell-laden nanofibrous bundle fabricated via cell electrospinning to regenerate skeletal muscle tissue. Small 14:1803491. doi:10.1002/smll.v14.48.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yi, J., R. F. LeBouf, M. G. Duling, T. Nurkiewicz, B. T. Chen, D. Schwegler-Berry, M. A. Virji, and A. B. Stefaniak. 2016. Emission of particulate matter from a desktop three-dimensional (3D) printer. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health A 79:453–65. doi:10.1080/15287394.2016.1166467.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhu, W., H. Cui, B. Boualam, F. Masood, E. Flynn, R. D. Rao, Z. Y. Zhang, and L. G. Zhang. 2018. 3D bioprinting mesenchymal stem cell-laden construct with core-shell nanospheres for cartilage tissue engineering. Nanotechnology 29:185101. doi:10.1088/1361-6528/aaafa1.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar