6
Views
14
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Part six: Risk assessment

Overview of some aspects of quantitative risk assessment

Pages 1275-1296 | Published online: 20 Oct 2009

References

  • Albert , R. E. and Altschuler , B. 1973 . “ Considerations relating to the formulation of limits for unavoidable population exposures to environmental carcinogens ” . In Radionuclide Carcinogenesis , Edited by: Ballon , J. E. 233 – 253 . Springfield, Va. : National Technical Information Service .
  • Ames , B. N. 1979 . The detection and hazards of environmental carcinogens and mutagens . Am. Chem. Soc. Symp. , 94 : 1 – 11 .
  • Arley , N. and Iverson , S. 1952 . On the mechanism of experimental carcinogenesis . Acta Pathol Microbiol. Scand. , 31 : 164 – 171 .
  • Armitage , P. and Doll , R. 1954 . The age distribution of cancer and a multi‐stage theory of carcinogenesis . Br. J. Cancer , 8 : 1 – 12 .
  • Armitage , P. and Doll , R. 1957 . A two‐stage theory of carcinogenesis in relation to the age distribution of human cancer . Br. J. Cancer , 11 : 161 – 169 .
  • Armitage , P. and Doll , R. Stochastic models for carcinogenesis . Proceedings of the Fourth Berkeley Symposium on Mathematical Statistics and Probability . vol. 4 , pp. 19 – 38 . Berkeley : Univ. of California Press .
  • Berkson , J. 1944 . Application of the logistic function to bioassay . J. Am. Stat. Assoc. , 39 : 357 – 365 .
  • Blum , H. F. 1959 . Carcinogenesis by Ultraviolet Light , Princeton, N.J. : Princeton Univ. Press .
  • Brown , C. C. , Fears , T. R. , Gail , M. H. , Schneiderman , M. A. , Tarone , R. E. and Mantel , N. 1978 . Models for carcinogenic risk assessment . Science , 202 : 1105 – 1106 .
  • Cairns , T. 1979 . The ED01 study: Introduction, objectives and experimental design . J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. , 3 : 1 – 7 .
  • Canada Department of Health and Welfare . 1973 . The Testing of Chemicals for Carcinogenicity, Mutagenicity, and Teratogenicity , Ottawa : Department of Health and Welfare .
  • Carter , L. J. 1979 . How to assess cancer risks . Science , 204 : 811 – 816 .
  • Chand , N. and Hoel , D. G. 1974 . “ A comparison of models for determining safe levels of environmental agents ” . In Reliability and Biometry: Statistical Analysis of Lifelength , Edited by: Proschan , F. and Serfling , R. J. 52 – 83 . Philadelphia : Society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics .
  • Clayson , D. B. 1978 . Overview, fact, myth and speculation . J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. , 2 : 1 – 8 .
  • Cornfield , J. 1977 . Carcinogenic risk assessment . Science , 198 : 693 – 699 .
  • Cornfield , J. , Carlborg , F. W. and Van Ryzin , J. 1979 . Setting tolerance on the basis of mathematical treatment of dose‐response data extrapolated to low doses . Proc. 1st Int. Toxicol. Congr. , in press
  • Cox , D. R. 1972 . Regression models and life tables . J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. B , 34 : 187 – 202 .
  • Crump , K. S. 1978 . Models for carcinogenic risk assessment . Science , 202 : 1105
  • Crump , K. S. 1979 . Dose response problems in carcinogenesis . Biometrics , 35 : 157 – 167 .
  • Crump , K. S. , Hoel , D. G. , Langley , C. H. and Peto , R. 1976 . Fundamental carcinogenic processes and their implications for low dose risk assessment . Cancer Res. , 36 : 2973 – 2979 .
  • Crump , K. S. , Guess , H. A. and Deal , K. L. 1977 . Confidence intervals and test of hypotheses concerning dose response relations inferred from animal carcinogenicity data . Biometrics , 33 : 437 – 451 .
  • Davis , D. L. and Rail , D. P. 1979 . “ Estimating risks as the basis for preventive policies ” . In Strategies for Public Health: Promoting Health and Preventing Disease , Edited by: Ng , L. and Davis , D. L. 70 – 82 . New York : Van Nostrand‐Reinhold .
  • Day , T. D. 1967 . Carcinogenic action of cigarette smoke condensate on mouse skin . Br. J. Cancer , 21 : 56 – 81 .
  • Druckrey , H. 1967 . “ Qualitative aspects of chemical carcinogenesis ” . In Potential Carcinogenic Hazards from Drugs, Evaluation of Risks , Edited by: Truhaut , R. 60 – 78 . New York : Springer‐Verlag .
  • EPA . 1979 . Water Quality Criteria: Request for Comments . Fed. Regist. , 44 : 15926 – 15976 .
  • FDA . 1971 . Food and Drug Administration Advisory Committee on Protocols for Safety Evaluation: Panel on Carcinogenesis Report on Cancer Testing in the Safety Evaluation of Food Additives and Pesticides . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 20 : 419 – 438 .
  • FDA . 1977 . Fed. Regist , 42 (35) : 10412
  • Finney , D. J. 1952 . Statistical Methods in Biological Assay , New York : Hafner .
  • Fisher , J. C. 1958 . Multiple‐mutation theory of carcinogenesis . Nature (Lond.) , 181 : 651 – 652 .
  • Flowers , E. 1977 . Proposal: A non‐zero approach to environmental limits for carcinogenesis . Occup. Health Safety , May/June : 35 – 39 .
  • Gaylor , D. W. and Shapiro , R. E. 1979 . “ Extrapolation and risk estimation for carcinogenesis ” . In Advances in Modern Toxicology , Edited by: Mehlman , M. A. and Shapiro , R. E. vol. 1 , 65 – 87 . Washington, D.C. : Hemisphere . pt. 2
  • Gehring , P. J. and Blau , G. E. 1977 . Mechanisms of carcinogenesis: Dose response . J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. , 1 : 163 – 179 .
  • Gehring , P. J. , Watanabe , P. G. , Young , J. D. and Lebeau , J. E. 1977 . Metabolic thresholds in assessing carcinogenic hazard . Chem. Hum. Health Environ. , 2 : 56 – 70 .
  • Gehring , P. G. , Watanabe , P. G. and Park , C. N. 1979 . Risk of angiosarcoma in workers exposed to vinyl chloride as predicted from studies in rats . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 49 : 15 – 21 .
  • Guess , H. A. and Crump , K. S. 1976 . Low dose rate extrapolation of data from animal carcinogenicity experiments–analysis of new statistical technique . Math. Biosci. , 32 : 15 – 36 .
  • Guess , H. A. and Crump , K. S. 1978 . Best‐estimate low‐dose extrapolation of carcinogenicity data . Environ. Health Perspect. , 22 : 149 – 152 .
  • Guess , H. A. , Crump , K. S. and Peto , R. 1977 . Uncertainty estimates for low‐dose‐rate extrapolations of animal carcinogenicity data . Cancer Res. , 37 : 3475 – 3483 .
  • Hartley , H. O. and Sielken , R. L. 1977 . Estimation of “safe doses” in carcinogenic experiments . Biometrics , 33 : 1 – 30 .
  • Hoel , D. G. 1972 . A representation of mortality data by competing risks . Biometrics , 28 : 475 – 488 .
  • Hoel , D. G. 1975 . Estimation of risks of irreversible, delayed toxicity . Toxicol. Environ. Health , 1 : 133
  • Hoel , D. G. 1976 . Statistical extrapolation methods for estimating risks from animal data . Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. , 271 : 418 – 420 .
  • Hoel , D. G. 1979 . “ Low‐dose and species‐to‐species extrapolation for chemically induced carcinogenesis ” . In Banbury Report vol. 1 Assessing Chemical Mutagens: The Risk to Humans , Edited by: McElheny , V. K. and Abrahamson , S. vol. 1 , 135 – 145 . Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. : Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory .
  • Hoel , D. G. , Gaylor , D. W. , Kirschstein , R. L. , Saffiotti , U. and Schneiderman , M. A. 1975 . 1975 estimation of risks of irreversible, delayed toxicity . J. Toxicol. Environ. Health , 1 : 133 – 151 .
  • IARC . 1977 . “ IARC monograph programme on the evaluation of carcinogenic risk of chemicals to humans ” . IARC Internal Tech. Rept. 77/002 15 – 17 . Lyon : International Agency for Research on Cancer .
  • IRLG . 1979 . Scientific Bases for Identifying Potential Carcinogens and Estimating Their Risks. A Report of the Interagency Regulatory Liaison Group (IRLG) Work Group on Risk Assessment , Washington, D.C. : Department of Health, Education and Welfare .
  • Iverson , S. and Arley , N. 1950 . On the mechanism of experimental carcinogens . Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. , 27 : 773 – 803 .
  • Janyseva , H. J. 1977 . On the establishment of MPCs of benz(a)pyrene in the ambient air of built‐up areas . Gig. Sanit. , 7 : 87 – 91 .
  • Jones , H. Dose‐effect relationships in carcinogenesis and the matter of threshold of carcinogenesis . Presented at the NIEHS Conference on the Problems of Extrapolating the Results of Laboratory Animal Data to Man and of Extrapolating the Results from High Dose Level Experiments to Low Dose Level Exposures . March 10–12 , Pinehurst, N.C..
  • Jones , H. 1978 . Dose‐effect relationships in carcinogenesis and the matter of threshold of carcinogenesis . Environ. Health Perspect , 22 : 171 – 172 .
  • Jones , H. B. and Grendon , A. 1975 . Environmental factors in the origin of cancer and estimation of possible hazard to man . Food Cosmet. Toxicol. , 13 : 251 – 269 .
  • Laroye , G. J. 1974 . How efficient is immunological surveillance against cancer and why does it fail? . Lancet , 1 : 1097 – 1100 .
  • Lepkowski , W. 1978 . Extrapolation of carcinogenesis data . Environ. Health Perspect. , 22 : 173 – 181 .
  • Lindell , B. 1978 . Dose assessment analogies . Environ. Health Perspect. , 22 : 75 – 78 .
  • Mantel , N. 1963 . Symposium on chemical carcinogenesis. Part IV, The concept of threshold in carcinogenesis . Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. , 4 : 104 – 109 .
  • Mantel , N. and Bryan , W. R. 1961 . Safety testing of carcinogenic agents . J. Natl. Cancer Inst. , 27 : 455 – 470 .
  • Mantel , N. and Schneiderman , M. 1975 . Estimating “safe” levels, a hazardous undertaking . Cancer Res. , 35 : 1379 – 1386 .
  • Mantel , N. , Bohidar , N. , Brown , C. , Ciminera , J. and Tukey , J. 1975 . An improved “Mantel‐Bryan” procedure for “safety” testing of carcinogens . Cancer Res. , 35 : 865 – 872 .
  • Maugh , T. H. Jr. 1978a . Chemical carcinogens: How dangerous are low doses? . Science , 202 : 37 – 41 .
  • Maugh , T. H. II . 1978b . Chemical carcinogens: The scientific basis for regulation . Science , 201 : 1200 – 1205 .
  • McGaughey , C. 1978 . Models for carcinogenic risk assessment . Science , 202 : 1105
  • Munro , I. C. 1977 . Considerations in chronic toxicity testing: The chemical, the dose, the design . J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. , 1 : 183 – 197 .
  • NAS . 1975 . Principles for Evaluating Chemicals in the Environment , 82 – 89 . Washington, D.C. : National Academy of Sciences .
  • NAS . 1977 . Drinking Water and Health , 19 – 62 . Washington, D.C. : National Academy of Sciences .
  • NAS . 1978 . “ Chloroform, Carbon Tetrachloride and Other Halomethanes ” . 186 – 204 . Washington, D.C. : National Academy of Sciences .
  • NCI . 1979 . NCI draft memorandum to FDA on use of animal data in cancer risk assessment . Chem. Reg. Rep. , 3 : 274 – 275 .
  • Neyman , J. 1978 . Models for carcinogenic risk assessment . Science , 202 : 1106 – 1107 .
  • Neyman , J. and Scott , E. Statistical aspects of the problem of carcinogenesis . Fifth Berkeley Symposium on Mathematical Statistics and Probability . pp. 745 – 776 . Berkeley, Calif. : Univ. of California Press .
  • Nordberg , G. F. and Strangert , P. 1978 . Fundamental aspects of dose‐response relationships and their extrapolations for non‐carcinogenic effects of metals . Environ. Health Perspect. , 22 : 97 – 102 .
  • Nordling , C. O. 1953 . A new theory on the cancer‐inducing mechanism . Br. J. Cancer , 7 : 68 – 72 .
  • Page , N. P. 1977 . Chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity guidelines . J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. , 1 : 161 – 182 .
  • Peto , R. 1978 . The carcinogenic effects of chronic exposure to very low levels of toxic substances . Environ. Health Perspect. , 22 : 155 – 159 .
  • Peto , R. and Lee , P. N. 1973 . Weibull distribution for continuous carcinogenesis experiments . Biometrics , 29 : 457 – 470 .
  • Peto , R. , Lee , P. N. and Paige , W. S. 1972 . Statistical analysis of the bioassay of continuous carcinogens . Br. J. Cancer , 26 : 258 – 261 .
  • Pike , M. C. 1966 . A method of analysis of a certain class of experiments in carcinogenesis . Biometrics , 22 : 142 – 161 .
  • Rall , D. P. 1978 . Thresholds? . Environ. Health Perspect. , 22 : 163 – 165 .
  • Rall , D. P. 1979 . “ The role of laboratory animal studies in estimating carcinogenic risks for man ” . In Carcinogenic Risks: Strategies for Intervention , IARC Sci. Publ. 25 Edited by: Davis , W. and Rosenfeld , C. 179 – 189 . Lyon : International Agency for Research on Cancer .
  • Riley , V. 1975 . Mouse mammary tumors, alteration of incidence as apparent function of stress . Science , 189 : 465 – 467 .
  • Roe , F. J. C. and Tucker , M. J. 1974 . “ Recent developments in the design of carcinogenicity tests on laboratory animals ” . In Experimental Model Systems in Toxicology and Their Significance for the Study of Drug Toxicity , vol. 15 , 171 – 177 . New York : American Elsevier .
  • Saffiotti , U. 1978 . Experimental identification of chemical carcinogens, risk evaluation, and animal to human correlations . Environ. Health Perspect. , 22 : 107 – 113 .
  • Scherer , E. and Emmelot , P. 1978 . Models for carcinogenic risk assessment . Science , 202 : 1107
  • Schneiderman , M. A. and Brown , C. C. 1978 . Estimating cancer risks to a population . Environ. Health Perspect. , 22 : 115 – 124 .
  • Scientific Committee, Food Safety Council . 1978 . Proposed system for food safety assessment . Food Cosmet. Toxicol. , 16 (Suppl. 2) : 109 – 120 .
  • Sontag , J. M. , Page , N. P. and Saffiotti , U. 1976 . “ Guidelines for carcinogenicity bioassay in small rodents ” . Natl. Cancer Carcinogenesis Tech. Rep. Ser. 1, DHEW Publ. (NIH) 76–801. Washington, D.C. : Government Printing Office .
  • Stokinger , H. E. 1970 . Spectre of environmental pollution‐USA brand: New perspectives from an old scout . Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. , 30 : 195 – 217 .
  • Stokinger , H. E. and Woodward , R. C. 1958 . Toxicological methods for establishing drinking‐water standards . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 50 : 519 – 529 .
  • Tardiff , R. G. 1977 . Health effects of organics: Risk and hazard assessment of ingested chloroform . J. Am. Water Works Assoc. , 69 : 658 – 662 .
  • Truhaut , R. 1979 . “ An overview of the problem of thresholds for chemical carcinogens ” . In Carcinogenic Risks: Strategies for Intervention , IARC Sci. Publ. 25 Edited by: Davis , W. and Rosenfeld , C. 191 – 202 . Lyon : International Agency for Research on Cancer .
  • Vettorazzi , G. 1975 . Toxicological decisions and recommendations resulting from the safety assessment of pesticides in food . Crit. Rev. Toxicol. , 4 : 125 – 183 .
  • Vettorazzi , G. 1977 . “ Safety Factors and Their Application in Toxicological Evaluation ” . In The Evaluation of Toxicological Data for the Protection of Public Health , Edited by: Hunter , W. J. and Sweetz , J. G. P. M. 207 – 223 . Oxford : Pergamon .
  • Weil , C. S. 1972 . Statistics versus safety factors and scientific judgment in the evaluation of safety for man . Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. , 21 : 454 – 463 .
  • Weinhouse , S. 1977 . “ Problems in the assessment of human risk of carcinogenesis by chemicals ” . In Origins of Human Cancer Book C: Human Risk Assessment , Edited by: Hiatt , W. , Watson , J. D. and Winsten , J. A. 289 – 292 . Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. : Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory .
  • Weisburger , J. H. 1975 . “ Chemical carcinogenesis ” . In Toxicology , Edited by: Casarett , L. J. and Doull , J. 333 – 378 . New York : Macmillan .
  • Weisburger , J. H. 1976 . Environmental cancer . J. Occup. Med. , 18 : 245 – 252 .
  • Whittemore , A. and Altschuler , B. 1976 . Lung cancer incidence in cigarette smokers: Further analysis of Doll and Hill's data for British physicians . Biometrics , 32 : 805 – 816 .
  • WHO . 1977 . Environmental Health Criteria No. 4: Oxides of Nitrogen , Geneva : World Health Organization .
  • WHO . 1978 . Environmental Health Criteria No. 6: Principles and Methods for Evaluating the Toxicity of Chemicals , vol. 1 , 25 – 61 . Geneva : World Health Organization .
  • Wynder , E. L. 1976 . Nutritional cancer . Fed. Proc. , 35 : 1309 – 1315 .
  • Wynder , E. L. 1977 . Cultural and behavioral aspects of risk factors: Society's obligation . J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. , 1 : 11 – 18 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.