Academically contingent self-worth and vulnerability: When approach self-validation goals are more threatening than avoidance self-validation goals

References

• Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Barron, K. E. & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2001). Achievement goals and optimal motivation: Testing multiple goal models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 706–722. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.5.706
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer, C., & Vohs, K. D. (2001). Bad is stronger than good. Review of General Psychology, 5, 323–370. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.5.4.323
   Google Scholar
• Baumeister, R. F., Tice, D. M., & Hutton, D. G. (1989). Self-presentational motivations and personality differences in self-esteem. Journal of Personality, 57, 547-579. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1989.tb02384.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell, A. M., Spencer, S. J., Iserman, E., & Logel, C. E. R. (2003). Stereotype threat and women’s performance in engineering. Journal of Engineering Education, 92, 307–312.10.1002/jee.2003.92.issue-4
   Google Scholar
• Brodish, A. B., & Devine, P. G. (2009). The role of performance-avoidance goals and worry in mediating the relationship between stereotype threat and performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 180–185. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.08.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, R. P., & Josephs, R. A. (1999). A burden of proof: Stereotype relevance and gender differences in math performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 246–257. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.76.2.246
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burhans, K. K., & Dweck, C. S. (1995). Helplessness in early childhood: The role of contingent worth. Child Development, 66, 1719–1738. doi:10.2307/1131906
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burwell, R. A., & Shirk, S. R. (2006). Self processes in adolescent depression: The role of self-worth contingencies. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 479–490. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2006.00503.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chalabaev, A., Major, B., Sarrazin, P., & Cury, F. (2012). When avoiding failure improves performance: Stereotype threat and the impact of performance goals. Motivation and Emotion, 36, 130–142. doi:10.1007/s11031-011-9241-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, G. L., Garcia, J., Apfel, N., & Master, A. (2006). Reducing the racial achievement gap: A social-psychological intervention. Science, 313, 1307–1310. doi:10.1126/science.1128317
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• College Board. (1997). 10 real SATs. New York, NY: College Entrance Examination Board.
   Google Scholar
• Covington, M. V. (1984). The self-worth theory of achievement motivation: Findings and implications. The Elementary School Journal, 85, 5–20. doi:10.1086/461388
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crocker, J., Karpinski, A., Quinn, D. M., & Chase, S. K. (2003). When grades determine self-worth: Consequences of contingent self-worth for male and female engineering and psychology majors. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 507–516. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.507
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R. K., Cooper, M. L., & Bouvrette, A. (2003). Contingencies of self-worth in college students: Theory and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 894–908. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.894
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crocker, J., & Park, L. (2004). The costly pursuit of self-esteem. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 392–414. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.392
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crocker, J., Sommers, S. R., & Luhtanen, R. (2002). Hopes dashed and dreams fulfilled: Contingencies of self-worth and graduate school admissions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1275–1286. doi:10.1177/01461672022812012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crocker, J., & Wolfe, C. T. (2001). Contingencies of self-worth. Psychological Review, 108, 593–623. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.108.3.593
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cronbach, L. (1987). Statistical tests for moderator variables: Flaws in analyses recently proposed. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 414–417. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.102.3.414
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1995). Human autonomy: The basis for true self-esteem. In M. H. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem (pp. 31–49). New York, NY: Plenum.
   Google Scholar
• Dykman, B. M. (1998). Integrating cognitive and motivational factors in depression: Initial tests of a goal-orientation approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 139–158. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.139
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliot, A. J., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). Approach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 461–475. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.461
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliot, A. J., McGregor, H. A., & Gable, S. (1999). Achievement goals, study strategies, and exam performance: A mediational analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 549–563. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.91.3.549
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M. (2001). Achievement goals and the hierarchical model of achievement motivation. Educational Psychology Review, 13, 139–156. doi:10.1023/A:1009057102306
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eysenck, M. W., Derakshan, N., Santos, R., & Calvo, M. G. (2007). Anxiety and cognitive performance: Attentional control theory. Emotion, 7, 336–353. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.7.2.336
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Geen, R. G. (1985). Evaluation apprehension and response withholding in solution of anagrams. Personality and Individual Differences, 6, 293–298. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(85)90052-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzales, P. M., Blanton, H., & Williams, K. J. (2002). The effects of stereotype threat and double-minority status on the test performance of Latino women. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 659–670. doi:10.1177/0146167202288010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grant, H., & Dweck, C. S. (2003). Clarifying achievement goals and their impact. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 541–553. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.541
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Pintrich, P. R., Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M. (2002). Revision of achievement goal theory: Necessary and illuminating. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 638–645. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.94.3.638
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2013). An introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2015). An index and test of linear moderated mediation. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 50, 1–22. doi:10.1080/00273171.2014.962683
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hembree, R. (1988). Correlates, causes, effects, and treatment of test anxiety. Review of Educational Research, 58, 47–77. doi:10.2307/1170348
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huang, C. (2013). Gender differences in academic self-efficacy: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 28, 1–35. doi:10.1007/s10212-011-0097-y
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hulleman, C. S., Schrager, S. M., Bodmann, S. M., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2010). A meta-analytic review of achievement goal measures: Different labels for the same constructs or different constructs with similar labels? Psychological Bulletin, 136, 422–449. doi:10.1037/a0018947
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hutchison, K. A., Smith, J. L., & Ferris, A. (2013). Goals can be threatened to extinction. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 4, 74–81. doi:10.1177/1948550612440734
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology (Vol. 1). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.10.1037/11059-000
   Google Scholar
• Jamieson, J. P., Mendes, W. B., Blackstock, E., & Schmader, T. (2010). Turning the knots in your stomach into bows: Reappraising arousal improves performance on the GRE. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 208–212. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.08.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johns, M., Schmader, T., & Martens, A. (2005). Knowing is half the battle. Psychological Science, 16, 175–179. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.00799.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keller, J., & Bless, H. (2008). When positive and negative expectancies disrupt performance: Regulatory focus as a catalyst. European Journal of Social Psychology, 38, 187–212. doi:10.1002/ejsp.452
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kernis, M. H. (2003). Author’s response: Optimal self-esteem and authenticity: separating fantasy from reality. Psychological Inquiry, 14, 83–89.10.1207/S15327965PLI1401_03
   Google Scholar
• Knee, C. R., Canevello, A., Bush, A. L., & Cook, A. (2008). Relationship-contingent self-esteem and the ups and downs of romantic relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 608–627. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.3.608
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrence, J. S., & Charbonneau, J. (2009). The link between basing self-worth on academics and student performance depends on domain identification and academic setting. Learning and Individual Differences, 19, 615–620. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2009.08.005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrence, J. S., & Crocker, J. (2009). Academic contingencies of self-worth impair positively- and negatively-stereotyped students’ performance in performance-goal settings. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 868–874. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.05.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawrence, J. S., Donnelly, S., & Reyna, C. (2015). Women who base self-worth on academics are vulnerable to math-related stereotype threat: Implications for interventions. Paper presented at the 27th Annual APS Convention, New York, NY.
   Google Scholar
• Lawrence, J. S., & Williams, A. (2013). Anxiety explains why people with domain contingent self-worth underperform on ability-diagnostic tests. Journal of Research in Personality, 47, 227–232. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2013.01.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemay, E. J., & Clark, M. S. (2008). “You’re just saying that.” Contingencies of self-worth, suspicion, and authenticity in the interpersonal affirmation process. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 1376–1382. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.05.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martens, A., Johns, M., Greenberg, J., & Schimel, J. (2006). Combating stereotype threat: The effect of self-affirmation on women’s intellectual performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 236–243. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.04.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Multon, K. D., Brown, S. D., & Lent, R. W. (1991). Relation of self-efficacy beliefs to academic outcomes: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 30–38. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.38.1.30
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murayama, K., Elliot, A., & Friedman, R. (2012). Achievement goals. In R. M. Ryan (Ed.), Oxford handbook of motivation  (191–207). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Niiya, Y., Crocker, J., & Bartmess, E. N. (2004). From vulnerability to resilience. Psychological Science, 15, 801–805. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00759.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nosek, B. A.,  Alter, G., Banks, G. C., Borsboom, D., Bowman, S. D., Breckler, S. J., ... & Contestabile, M. (2015). Promoting an open research culture. Science, 348, 1422–1425. doi:10.1126/science.aab2374
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osborne, J. W. (1995). Academics, self-esteem, and race: A look at the underlying assumptions of the disidentification hypothesis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 449–455. doi:10.1177/0146167295215003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osborne, J. W. (1997). Race and academic disidentification. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 728–735. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.89.4.728
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osborne, J. W., & Jones, B. D. (2011). Identification with academics and motivation to achieve in school: How the structure of the self influences academic outcomes. Educational Psychology Review, 23, 131–158. doi:10.1007/s10648-011-9151-1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pajares, F., & Miller, M. D. (1994). Role of self-efficacy and self-concept beliefs in mathematical problem solving: A path analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 193–203. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.86.2.193
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D., & Hayes, A. F. (2007). Addressing moderated mediation hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescriptions. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 42, 185–227. doi:10.1080/00273170701341316
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan, K. E., & Ryan, A. M. (2005). Psychological processes underlying stereotype threat and standardized math test performance. Educational Psychologist, 40, 53–63. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep4001_4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarason, I. G. (1984). Stress, anxiety, and cognitive interference: Reactions to tests. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 929–938. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.46.4.929
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sarason, I. G., & Stoops, R. (1978). Test anxiety and the passage of time. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 102–109. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.46.1.102
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C. (2008). An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance. Psychological Review, 115, 336–356. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.115.2.336
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seipp, B. (1991). Anxiety and academic performance: A meta-analysis of findings. Anxiety Research, 4, 27–41. doi:10.1080/08917779108248762
   Google Scholar
• Senko, C., & Dawson, B. (2016). Performance-approach goal effects depend on how they are defined: Meta-analytic evidence from multiple educational outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology. doi:10.1037/edu0000160
   Google Scholar
• Senko, C., Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2011). Achievement goal theory at the crossroads: Old controversies, current challenges, and new directions. Educational Psychologist, 46, 26–47. doi:10.1080/00461520.2011.538646
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shih, M., Pittinsky, T. L., & Ambady, N. (1999). Stereotype susceptibility: Identity salience and shifts in quantitative performance. Psychological Science, 10, 80–83. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00111
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, J. L. (2004). Understanding the process of stereotype threat: A review of mediational variables and new performance goal directions. Educational Psychology Review, 16, 177–206. doi:10.1023/B:EDPR.0000034020.20317.89
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, J. L. (2006). The interplay among stereotypes, performance-avoidance goals, and women’s math performance expectations. Sex Roles, 54, 287–296. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9345-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, J. L., Sansone, C., & White, P. H. (2007). The stereotyped task engagement process: The role of interest and achievement motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 99–114. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.1.99
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spencer, S. J., Steele, C. M., & Quinn, D. M. (1999). Stereotype threat and women’s math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 4–28. doi:10.1006/jesp.1998.1373
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52, 613–629. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.52.6.613
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African-Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 797–811. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thoman, D. B., Smith, J. L., Brown, E. R., Chase, J., & Lee, J. K. (2013). Beyond performance: A motivational experiences model of stereotype threat. Educational Psychology Review, 25, 211–243. doi:10.1007/s10648-013-9219-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tice, D. M. (1991). Esteem protection or enhancement? Self-handicapping motives and attributions differ by trait self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 711–725. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.60.5.711
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tice, D. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (1990). Self-esteem, self-handicapping, and self-presentation: The strategy of inadequate practice. Journal of Personality, 58, 443–464. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1990.tb00237.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wout, D. A., Shih, M. J., Jackson, J. S., & Sellers, R. M. (2009). Targets as perceivers: How people determine when they will be negatively stereotyped. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 349–362. doi:10.1037/a0012880
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar