Loss and loyalty: Change in political and gender identity among Clinton supporters after the 2016 U.S. presidential election

References

• ABC News/Washington Post. (2016, August 31). Clinton/Trump favorability. Retrieved from http://www.langerresearch.com/wp-content/uploads/1144-59ClintonTrumpFavorability.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Abramowitz, A. I. (2015). The new American electorate: Partisan, sorted, and polarized. In American Gridlock: The Sources, Character, and Impact of Political Polarization (pp. 19–44). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Abrams, D., & Hogg, M. A. (1988). Comments on the motivational status of self-esteem in social identity and intergroup discrimination. European Journal of Social Psychology, 18, 317–334. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420180403
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bizman, A., & Yinon, Y. (2002). Engaging in distancing tactics among sport fans: Effects on self-esteem and emotional responses. The Journal of Social Psychology, 142(3), 381–392. doi:10.1080/00224540209603906
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boen, F., Vanbeselaere, N., Pandelaere, M., Dewitte, S., Duriez, B., Snauwaert, B., … Van Avermaet, E. (2002). Politics and basking-in-reflected-glory: A field study in Flanders. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 24(3), 205–214. doi:10.1207/153248302760179129
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Branscombe, N. R., Schmitt, M. T., & Harvey, R. D. (1999). Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African Americans: Implications for group identification and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(1), 135–149. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.77.1.135
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burn, S. M., Aboud, R., & Moyles, C. (2000). The relationship between gender social identity and support for feminism. Sex Roles, 42(11/12), 1081–1089. doi:10.1023/A:1007044802798
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burns, A., Haberman, M., & Martin, J. (2016, October 7). Donald Trump apology caps day of outrage over lewd tape. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/08/us/politics/donald-trump-women.html
   Google Scholar
• Cialdini, R. B., Borden, R. J., Thorne, A., Walker, M. R., Freeman, S., & Sloan, L. R. (1976). Basking in reflected glory: Three (football) field studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34(3), 366–375. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.34.3.366
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• CNN. (2016, November 23). Exit polls 2016: National President. Retrieved from http://edition.cnn.com/election/results/exit-polls/national/president
   Google Scholar
• Cohen, G. L. (2003). Party over policy: The dominating impact of group influence on political beliefs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(5), 808–822. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.808
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dancey, L., & Goren, P. (2010). Party identification, issue attitudes, and the dynamics of political debate. American Journal of Political Science, 54(3), 686–699. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2010.00454.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doosje, B., Branscombe, N. R., Spears, R., & Manstead, A. (1998). Guilty by association: When one’s group has a negative history. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(4), 872–886. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.4.872
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doosje, B., Ellemers, N., & Spears, R. (1995). Perceived intragroup variability as a function of group status and identification. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology., 31(5), 410–436. doi:10.1006/jesp.1995.1018
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellemers, N., Spears, R., & Doosje, B. (1997). Sticking together or falling apart: In-group identification as a psychological determinant of group commitment versus individual mobility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(3), 617–626.10.1037/0022-3514.72.3.617
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellemers, N., Spears, R., & Doosje, B. (2002). Self and social identity. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 161–186. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135228
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ethier, K. A., & Deaux, K. (1994). Negotiating social identity when contexts change: Maintaining identification and responding to threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(2), 243–251.10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.243
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 219–239.10.2307/2136617
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaither, S. E., Wilton, L. S., & Young, D. M. (2014). Perceiving a presidency in black (and white): Four years later. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 14(1), 7–21. doi:10.1111/asap.12018
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gajanan, M. (2016, December 8). More than 4,500 women have signed up to run for office since the election. Time. Retrieved from http://time.com/4594114/she-should-run-women-election/
   Google Scholar
• Gramlich, J. (2016). America’s political divisions in 5 charts. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/11/07/americas-political-divisions-in-5-charts/
   Google Scholar
• Greene, S. (1999). Understanding party identification: A social identity approach. Political Psychology, 20(2), 393–403. doi:10.1111/0162-895X.00150
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greene, S. (2004). Social identity theory and party identification. Social Science Quarterly, 85(1), 136–153. doi:10.1111/j.0038-4941.2004.08501010.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hillary for America. (2016). Hillary Clinton on women’s rights and opportunity. Retrieved from https://www.hillaryclinton.com/issues/womens-rights-and-opportunity/
   Google Scholar
• Ho, A. K., Sidanius, J., Kteily, N., Sheehy-Skeffington, J., Pratto, F., Henkel, K. E., … Stewart, A. L. (2015). The nature of social dominance orientation: Theorizing and measuring preferences for intergroup inequality using the new SDO₇ scale. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(6), 1003–1028. doi:10.1037/pspi0000033
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hogg, M. A., Sherman, D. K., Dierselhuis, J., Maitner, A. T., & Moffitt, G. (2007). Uncertainty, entitativity, and group identification. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(1), 135–142. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.12.008
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huddy, L. (2001). From social to political identity: A critical examination of social identity theory. Political Psychology, 22(1), 127–156. doi:10.1111/0162-895x.00230
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobson, G. C. (2013). Partisan polarization in American politics: A background paper. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 43(4), 688–708. doi:10.1111/psq.12062
   Google Scholar
• Jost, J. T., & Amodio, D. M. (2012). Political ideology as motivated social cognition: Behavioral and neuroscientific evidence. Motivation and Emotion, 36, 55–64. doi:10.1007/s11031-011-9260-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jost, J. T., Nam, H. H., Amodio, D. M., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2014). Political neuroscience: The beginning of a beautiful friendship. Political Psychology, 35(11), 3–42. doi:10.1111/pops.12162
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaiser, C. R., Drury, B. J., Spalding, K. E., Cheryan, S., & O’Brien, L. T. (2009). The ironic consequences of Obama’s election: Decreased support for social justice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(3), 556–559. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.01.006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaiser, C. R., & Pratt-Hyatt, J. S. (2009). Distributing prejudice unequally: Do Whites direct their prejudice toward strongly identified minorities? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(2), 432–445.10.1037/a0012877
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Katz, J. (2016, November 8). Who will be president? The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/upshot/presidential-polls-forecast.html?_r=0
   Google Scholar
• Lachlan, K. A., & Levy, D. R. (2016). BIRGing, CORFing, and Twitter activity following a political referendum: Examining social media activity concerning the 2014 Scottish independence vote. Communication Research Reports, 33(3), 217–222.10.1080/08824096.2016.1186625
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leach, C. W., van Zomeren, M. V., Zebel, S., Vliek, M. L., Pennekamp, S. F., Doosje, B., … Spears, R. (2008). Group-level self-definition and self-investment: A hierarchical (multicomponent) model of in-group identification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(1), 144–165. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.144
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ledgerwood, A., & Chaiken, S. (2007). Priming us and them: Automatic assimilation and contrast in group attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(6), 940–956. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.6.940
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin, S., Sidanius, J., Rabinowitz, J. L., & Federico, C. (1998). Ethnic identity, legitimizing ideologies, and social status: A matter of ideological asymmetry. Political Psychology, 19, 373–404.10.1111/pops.1998.19.issue-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin, S., Sinclair, S., Veniegas, R. C., & Taylor, P. L. (2002). Perceived discrimination in the context of multiple group memberships. Psychological Science, 13(6), 557–560. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00498
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luhtanen, R., & Crocker, J. (1992). A collective self-esteem scale: Self-evaluation of one’s social identity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18(3), 302–318. doi:10.1177/0146167292183006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Major, B., Quinton, W. J., & Schmader, T. (2003). Attributions to discrimination and self-esteem: Impact of group identification and situational ambiguity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39(3), 220–231.10.1016/S0022-1031(02)00547-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, C. B. (2009). Yes we did! Basking in reflected glory and cutting off reflected failure in the 2008 presidential election. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 9(1), 283–296. doi:10.1111/j.1530-2415.2009.01194.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munro, G. D., Zirpoli, J., Schuman, A., & Taulbee, J. (2013). Third-party labels bias evaluations of political platforms and candidates. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 35(2), 151–163.10.1080/01973533.2013.764299
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ouwerkerk, J. W., de Gilder, D., & de Vries, N. K. (2000). When the going gets tough, the tough get going: Social identification and individual effort in intergroup competition. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26(12), 1550–1559.10.1177/01461672002612009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmader, T. (2002). Gender identification moderates stereotype threat effects on women’s math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38(2), 194–201. doi:10.1006/jesp.2001.1500
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., Kobrynowicz, D., & Owen, S. (2002). Perceiving discrimination against one’s gender group has different implications for well-being in women and men. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(2), 197–210.10.1177/0146167202282006
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simon, B., Loewy, M., Stürmer, S., Weber, U., Freytag, P., Habig, C., … Spahlinger, P. (1998). Collective identification and social movement participation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), 646–658. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.74.3.646
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spears, R., Doosje, B., & Ellemers, N. (1997). Self-stereotyping in the face of threats to group status and distinctiveness: The role of group identification. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(5), 538–553.10.1177/0146167297235009
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taber, C. S., & Lodge, M. (2006). Motivated skepticism in the evaluation of political beliefs. American Journal of Political Science, 50(3), 755–769. doi:10.1080/08913811.2012.711019
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajfel, H. (1979). Individuals and groups in social psychology. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 18(2), 183–190. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.1979.tb00324.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole.
   Google Scholar
• Tedeschi, J. T. (Ed.). (1981). Impression management theory and social psychological research. New York, NY: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tyson, A., & Maniam, S. (2016). Behind Trump’s victory: Divisions by race, gender, education. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/11/09/behind-trumps-victory-divisions-by-race-gender-education/
   Google Scholar
• Unsworth, K. L., & Fielding, K. S. (2014). It’s political: How the salience of one’s political identity changes climate change beliefs and policy support. Global Environmental Change, 27, 131–137.10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.05.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Veenstra, K., & Haslam, S. A. (2000). Willingness to participate in industrial protest: Exploring social identification in context. British Journal of Social Psychology, 39(2), 153–172. doi:10.1348/014466600164390
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wann, D. L., & Branscombe, N. R. (1990). Die-hard and fair-weather fans: Effects of identification on BIRGing and CORFing tendencies. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 14(2), 103–117.10.1177/019372359001400203
   Google Scholar
• Wann, D. L., Hamlet, M. A., Wilson, T. M., & Hodges, J. A. (1995). Basking in reflected glory, cutting off reflected failure, and cutting off future failure: The importance of group identification. Social Behavior and Personality: An international journal, 23(4), 377–388. doi:10.2224/sbp.1995.23.4.377
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weaver, C., Rennison, J., Whipp, L., & Bullock, N. (2017, January 22). Trump reacts to mass protests with conciliatory tweet. Financial Times. Retrieved from https://www.ft.com/content/7b34cd82-dfe2-11e6-8405-9e5580d6e5fb
   Google Scholar
• Zezima, K., & Callahan, M. (2016). Donald Trump vs. Hillary Clinton on the issues. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/politics/political-issues/
   Google Scholar