Posttraumatic Stress Symptomatology as a Mediator of the Association Between Military Sexual Trauma and Post-Deployment Physical Health in Women

REFERENCES

• American Psychiatric Association . 1994 . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders , 4th , Washington, DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• American Psychiatric Association . 2000 . Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders , 4th , Washington, DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• Blanchard , E. B. , Jones-Alexander , J. , Buckley , T. C. and Forneris , C. A. 1996 . Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist (PCL) . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 34 : 669 – 673 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell , R. , Greeson , M. R. , Bybee , D. and Raja , S. 2008 . The co-occurrence of childhood sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, intimate partner violence, and sexual harassment: A mediational model of posttraumatic stress disorder and physical health outcomes . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 76 : 194 – 207 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , J. 1988 . Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences , 2nd , Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Dutton , M. A. , Green , B. L. , Kaltman , S. I. , Roesch , D. M. , Zeffiro , T. A. and Krause , E. D. 2006 . Intimate partner violence, PTSD, and adverse health outcomes . Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 21 : 955 – 968 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fontana , A. and Rosenheck , R. 1998 . Duty-related and sexual stress in the etiology of PTSD among women veterans who seek treatment . Psychiatric Services , 49 : 658 – 662 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frayne , S. , Skinner , K. M. , Sullivan , L. M. and Freund , K. M. 2003 . Sexual assault while in the military: Violence as a predictor of cardiac risk? . Violence and Victims , 18 : 219 – 225 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Frayne , S. , Skinner , K. M. , Sullivan , L. M. , Tripp , T. J. , Hankin , C. S. , Kressin , N. and Miller , D. R. 1999 . Medical profile of women Veterans Administration outpatients who report a history of sexual assault occurring while in the military . Journal of Women's Health and Gender-Based Medicine , 8 : 835 – 845 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fukuda , K. , Nisenbaum , R. , Stewart , G. , Thompson , W. W. , Robin , L. , Washko , R. M. and Reeves , W. C. 1998 . Chronic multisymptom illness affecting Air Force veterans of the Gulf War . Journal of the American Medical Association , 280 : 981 – 988 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haley , R. W. 1997 . Is Gulf War syndrome due to stress? The evidence reexamined . American Journal of Epidemiology , 146 : 695 – 703 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Himmelfarb , N. , Yaeger , D. and Mintz , J. 2006 . Posttraumatic stress disorder in female veterans with military and civilian sexual trauma . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 19 : 837 – 846 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoge , C. W. , Terhakopian , A. , Castro , C. A. , Messer , S. C. and Engel , C. C. 2007 . Association of posttraumatic stress disorder with somatic symptoms, health care visits, and absenteeism among Iraq War veterans . American Journal of Psychiatry , 164 : 150 – 153 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopkins , K. D. and Weeks , D. L. 1990 . Tests for normality and measures of skewness and kurtosis: Their place in research reporting . Educational and Psychological Measurement , 50 : 717 – 729 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iowa Persian Gulf Study Group . 1997 . Self-reported illness and health status among Gulf War veterans: A population-based study . Journal of the American Medical Association , 277 : 238 – 245 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jakupcak , M. , Luterek , J. , Hunt , S. , Conybeare , D. and McFall , M. 2008 . Posttraumatic stress and its relationship to physical health functioning in a sample of Iraq and Afghanistan war veterans seeking postdeployment VA health care . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 196 : 425 – 428 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kang , H. , Dalager , N. , Mahan , C. and Ishii , E. 2005 . The role of sexual assault on the risk of PTSD among Gulf War veterans . Annals of Epidemiology , 15 : 191 – 195 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimerling , R. , Gima , K. , Smith , M. W. , Street , A. and Frayne , S. 2007 . The Veterans Health Administration and military sexual trauma . American Journal of Public Health , 97 : 2160 – 2166 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King , L. A. , King , D. W. , Bolton , E. E. , Knight , J. A. and Vogt , D. S. 2008 . Risk factors for mental, physical, and functional health in Gulf War veterans . Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development , 45 : 395 – 408 .
   Google Scholar
• King , L. , King , D. , Vogt , D. , Knight , J. A. and Samper , R. 2006 . Deployment Risk and Resilience Inventory: A collection of measures for studying deployment-related experiences of military personnel and veterans . Military Psychology , 18 : 89 – 120 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang , A. J. , Aarons , G. A. , Gearity , J. , Laffaye , C. , Satz , L. , Dresselhaus , T. R. and Stein , M. 2008 . Direct and indirect links between childhood maltreatment, posttraumatic stress disorder, and women's health . Behavioral Medicine , 33 : 125 – 135 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang , A. J. , Laffaye , C. , Satz , L. E. , McQuaid , J. R. , Malcarne , V. L. , Dresselhaus , T. R. and Stein , M. B. 2006 . Relationships among childhood maltreatment, PTSD, and health in female veterans in primary care . Child Abuse and Neglect , 30 : 1281 – 1292 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lipari , R. N. , Cook , P. J. , Rock , L. M. and Matos , K. 2008 . Gender relations survey of active duty members , Arlington, VA : Defense Manpower Data Center .
   Google Scholar
• MacKinnon , D. P. , Fairchild , A. J. and Fritz , M. S. 2007 . Mediation analysis . Annual Review of Psychology , 58 : 593 – 614 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacKinnon , D. P. , Fritz , M. S. , Williams , J. and Lockwood , C. M. 2007 . Distribution of the product confidence limits for the indirect effect: Program PRODCLIN . Behavior Research Methods , 39 : 384 – 389 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacKinnon , D. P. , Lockwood , C. M. , Hoffman , J. M. , West , S. G. and Sheets , V. 2002 . A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects . Psychological Methods , 7 : 83 – 104 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , L. , Rosen , L. N. , Durand , D. , Knudson , K. H. and Stretch , R. H. 2000 . Psychological and physical health effects of sexual assaults and nonsexual traumas among male and female United States Army soldiers . Behavioral Medicine , 26 : 23 – 33 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murdoch , M. , Polusny , M. A. , Hodges , J. and Cowper , D. 2006 . The association between in-service sexual harassment and post-traumatic stress disorder among Department of Veterans Affairs disability applicants . Military Medicine , 17 : 166 – 173 .
   Google Scholar
• Norman , S. B. , Means-Christensen , A. J. , Craske , M. G. , Sherbourne , C. D. , Roy-Byrne , P. P. and Stein , M. B. 2006 . Associations between psychological trauma and physical illness in primary care . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 19 : 461 – 470 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Otis , J. D. , Keane , T. M. , Kerns , R. D. , Monson , C. and Scioli , E. 2009 . The development of an integrated treatment for veterans with comorbid chronic pain and posttraumatic stress disorder . Pain Medicine , 10 : 1300 – 1311 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Proctor , S. P. , Heeren , T. , White , R. F. , Wolfe , J. , Borgos , M. S. , Davis , J. D. and Ozonoff , D. 1998 . Health status of Persian Gulf War veterans: Self-reported symptoms, environmental exposures and the effect of stress . International Journal of Epidemiology , 27 : 1000 – 1010 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramchand , R. , Marshall , G. N. , Schell , T. L. and Jaycox , L. H. 2008 . Posttraumatic distress and physical functioning: A longitudinal study of injured survivors of community violence . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 76 : 668 – 676 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruggiero , J. , Del-Ben , K. , Scotti , J. R. and Rabalais , A. E. 2003 . Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist–Civilian version . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 16 : 495 – 502 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sadler , A. G. , Booth , B. M. , Mengeling , M. A. and Doebbeling , B. N. 2004 . Life span and repeated violence against women during military service: Effects on health status and outpatient utilization . Journal of Women's Health , 13 : 799 – 811 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sadler , A. G. , Booth , B. M. , Nielson , D. and Doebbeling , B. N. 2000 . Health-related consequences of physical and sexual violence: Women in the military . Obstetrics and Gynecology , 96 : 473 – 480 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sareen , J. , Cox , B. J. , Stein , M. B. , Afifi , T. O. , Fleet , C. and Asmundson , G. J. 2007 . Physical and mental comorbidity, disability, and suicidal behavior associated with posttraumatic stress disorder in a large community sample . Psychosomatic Medicine , 69 : 242 – 248 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schnurr , P. P. and Green , B. L. 2004a . Trauma and health: Physical health consequences of exposure to extreme stress , Washington, DC : American Psychological Association .
   Google Scholar
• Schnurr , P. P. and Green , B. L. 2004b . Understanding relationships among trauma, post-traumatic stress disorder, and health outcomes . Advances in Mind-Body Medicine , 20 : 18 – 29 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schnurr , P. P. and Jankowski , M. K. 1999 . Physical health and post-traumatic stress disorder: Review and synthesis . Seminars in Clinical Neuropsychiatry , 4 : 295 – 304 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schnurr , P. P. and Spiro , A. III. 1999 . Combat exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, and health behaviors as predictors of self-reported physical health in older veterans . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 187 : 353 – 359 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schnurr , P. P. , Spiro , A. III and Paris , A. H. 2000 . Physician-diagnosed medical disorders in relation to PTSD symptoms in older male military veterans . Health Psychology , 19 : 91 – 97 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shipherd , J. C. , Beck , J. G. , Hamblen , J. L. , Lackner , J. M. and Freeman , J. B. 2003 . A preliminary examination of treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder in chronic pain patients: A case study . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 16 : 451 – 457 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shipherd , J. C. , Keyes , M. , Jovanovic , T. , Ready , D. , Baltzell , D. , Worley , V. and Duncan , E. 2007 . PTSD treatment seeking veterans: What about comorbid chronic pain? . Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development , 44 : 153 – 166 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shipherd , J. C. , Pineles , S. L. , Gradus , J. L. and Resick , P. A. 2009 . Sexual harassment in the Marines, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and perceived health: Evidence for sex differences . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 22 : 3 – 10 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Street , A. E. , Gradus , J. L. , Stafford , J. and Kelly , K. 2007 . Gender differences in experiences of sexual harassment: Data from a male-dominated environment . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 75 : 464 – 474 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Street , A. E. , Stafford , J. , Mahan , C. M. and Hendricks , A. 2008 . Sexual harassment and assault experienced by reservists during military service: Prevalence and health correlates . Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development , 45 : 409 – 419 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Street , A. E. , Vogt , D. S. and Dutra , L. 2009 . A new generation of women veterans: Stressors faced by women deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan . Clinical Psychology Review , 29 : 685 – 694 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suris , A. and Lind , L. 2008 . Military sexual trauma: A review of prevalence and associated health consequences in veterans . Trauma, Violence, and Abuse , 9 : 250 – 269 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suris , A. , Lind , L. , Kashner , M. , Borman , P. D. and Petty , F. 2004 . Sexual assault in women veterans: An examination of PTSD risk, health care utilization and cost of care . Psychosomatic Medicine , 66 : 749 – 756 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tabachnick , B. G. and Fidell , L. S. 1996 . Using multivariate statistics , 3rd , New York, NY : HarperCollins College .
   Google Scholar
• Vasterling , J. J. , Schumm , J. , Proctor , S. P. , Gentry , E. , King , D. W. and King , L. A. 2008 . Posttraumatic stress disorder and health functioning in a non-treatment seeking sample of Iraq war veterans: A prospective analysis . Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development , 45 : 347 – 358 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vogt , D. S. , Pless , A. P. , King , L. A. and King , D. W. 2005 . Deployment stressors, gender and mental health outcomes among Gulf War I veterans . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 18 : 115 – 127 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vogt , D. S. and Tanner , L. R. 2007 . Risk and resilience factors for posttraumatic stress symptomatology in Gulf War I veterans . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 20 ( 1 ) : 27 – 38 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weathers , F. , Litz , B. T. , Herman , D. S. , Huska , J. A. and Keane , T. M. The PTSD Checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility . Paper presented at the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies . San Antonio, TX. October .
   Google Scholar
• Wolfe , J. , Schnurr , P. P. , Brown , P. J. and Furey , J. 1994 . Posttraumatic stress disorder and war-zone exposure as correlates of perceived health in female Vietnam War veterans . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 62 : 1235 – 1240 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfe , J. , Sharkansky , E. J. , Read , J. P. , Dawson , R. , Martin , J. A. , Martin , J. A. and Oimette , P. C. 1998 . Sexual harassment and assault as predictors of PTSD symptomatology among U.S. female Persian Gulf War military personnel . Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 13 : 40 – 57 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yaeger , D. , Himmelfarb , N. , Cammack , A. and Mintz , J. 2006 . DSM-IV diagnosed posttraumatic stress disorder in women veterans with and without military sexual trauma . Journal of General Internal Medicine , 21 ( Suppl. 3 ) : S65 – S69 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar