10,022
Views
68
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Where Are We Going? An Update on Assessment, Treatment, and Neurobiological Research in Dissociative Disorders as We Move Toward the DSM-5

, , , &
Pages 9-31 | Received 15 Jun 2011, Accepted 27 Aug 2011, Published online: 02 Jan 2012

REFERENCES

  • Abrams , M. P. , Carleton , R. N. , Taylor , S. and Asmundson , G. J. 2009 . Human tonic immobility . Measurement and correlates. Depression and Anxiety , 26 : 550 – 556 . doi: doi: 10.1002/da.20462
  • Baars , E. W. , van der Hart , O. , Nijenhuis , E. R. S. , Chu , J. A. , Glas , G. and Draijer , N. 2011 . Predicting stabilizing treatment outcomes for complex posttraumatic stress disorder and dissociative identity disorder . An expertise-based prognostic model. Journal of Trauma & Dissociation , 12 : 67 – 87 . doi: doi: 10.1080/15299732.2010.514846
  • Bartzokis , G. , Lu , P. H. , Turner , J. , Mintz , J. and Saunders , C. S. 2005 . Adjunctive risperidone in the treatment of chronic combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder . Biological Psychiatry , 57 : 474 – 479 . doi: doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.11.039
  • Beecher , H. K. 1946 . Pain in men wounded in battle . Annals of Surgery , 123 : 96 – 105 .
  • Bernstein , E. M. and Putnam , F. W. 1986 . Development, reliability, and validity of a dissociation scale . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 174 : 727 – 734 .
  • Bohus , M. J. , Landwehrmeyer , G. B. , Stiglmayr , C. E. , Limberger , M. F. , Bohme , R. and Schmahl , C. G. 1999 . Naltrexone in the treatment of dissociative symptoms in patients with borderline personality disorder: An open-label trial . Journal of Clinical Psychiatry , 60 : 598 – 603 .
  • Bolles , R. C. and Fanselow , M. S. 1980 . A perceptual-defensive-recuperation model of fear and pain . Behavioral and Brain Sciences , 3 : 291 – 301 . doi: doi: 10.10117/S0140525X0000491X
  • Boon , S. and Draijer , N. 1993 . Multiple personality disorder in The Netherlands: A clinical investigation of 71 patients . American Journal of Psychiatry , 150 : 489 – 494 .
  • Boon , S. , Steele , K. and van der Hart , O. 2011 . Coping with trauma-related dissociation: Skills training for patients and therapists , New York, NY : Norton .
  • Bovin , M. J. , Jager-Hyman , S. , Gold , S. D. , Marx , B. P. and Sloan , D. M. 2008 . Tonic immobility mediates the influence of peritraumatic fear and perceived inescapability on posttraumatic stress symptom severity among sexual assault survivors . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 21 : 402 – 409 . doi: doi: 10.1002/jts.20354
  • Brand , B. L. , Armstrong , J. G. and Loewenstein , R. J. 2006 . Psychological assessment of patients with dissociative identity disorder . Psychiatric Clinics of North America , 29 : 145 – 168 . doi: doi: 10.1016/j.psc.2005.10.014
  • Brand , B. L. , Classen , C. C. , Lanius , R. , Loewenstein , R. J. , McNary , S. W. , Pain , C. and Putnam , F. W. 2009 . A naturalistic study of dissociative identity disorder and dissociative disorder not otherwise specified patients treated by community clinicians . Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy , 1 : 153 – 171 . doi: doi: 10.1037/a0016210
  • Brand , B. L. , Classen , C. C. , McNary , S. W. and Zaveri , P. 2009 . A review of dissociative disorders treatment studies . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 197 : 646 – 654 . doi: doi: 10.1097/NMD.0b013e3181b3afaa
  • Brand , B. L. , McNary , S. W. , Classen , C. C. , Myrick , A. C. , Lanius , R. , Loewenstein , R. J. … and Putnam , F. W. 2010 . The results of a longitudinal naturalistic study of treatment outcome for patients with dissociative disorders (TOP DD study) , Montreal, , Quebec : Paper presented at the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, November .
  • Brand , B. L. , McNary , S. W. , Loewenstein , R. J. , Kolos , A. C. and Barr , S. R. 2006 . Assessment of genuine and simulated dissociative identity disorder on the Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms . Journal of Trauma & Dissociation , 7 : 63 – 85 . doi: doi: 10.1300/J229v07n01_06
  • Brand , B. L. , Myrick , A. C. , Loewenstein , R. J. , Classen , C. C. , Lanius , R. A. , McNary , S. W. … and Putnam , F. W. in press . “ A survey of practices and recommended treatment interventions among expert therapists treating patients with dissociative identity disorder and dissociative disorder not otherwise specified ” . In Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy
  • Brand , M. , Eggers , C. , Reinhold , N. , Fujiwara , E. , Kessler , J. , Heiss , W. D. and Markowitsch , H. J. 2009 . Functional brain imaging in 14 patients with dissociative amnesia reveals right inferolateral prefrontal hypometabolism . Psychiatry Research , 174 : 32 – 39 . doi: doi: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2009.03.008
  • Bremner , J. D. , Krystal , J. H. , Putnam , F. W. , Southwick , S. M. , Marmar , C. , Charney , D. S. and Mazure , C. M. 1998 . Measurement of dissociative states with the Clinician-Administered Dissociative States Scale (CADSS) . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 11 : 125 – 136 . doi: doi: 10.1023/A:1024465317902
  • Brewin , C. R. and Patel , T. 2010 . Auditory pseudohallucinations in United Kingdom war veterans and civilians with posttraumatic stress disorder . Journal of Clinical Psychiatry , 71 : 419 – 425 . doi: doi: 10.4088/JCP.09m05469blu
  • Brickman , J. and Briere , J. 1989 . Incidence of rape and sexual assault in an urban Canadian population . International Journal of Women's Studies , 7 : 195 – 206 .
  • Briere , J. 2002 . Multiscale Dissociation Inventory , Odessa, FL : Psychological Assessment Resources .
  • Bryant , R. A. , Friedman , M. J. , Spiegel , D. , Ursano , R. and Strain , J. 2010 . A review of acute stress disorder in DSM-5 . Depression and Anxiety , 28 : 802 – 817 . doi: doi: 10.1002/da.20737
  • Burgess , A. W. and Holmstrom , L. L. 1976 . Coping behavior of the rape victim . American Journal of Psychiatry , 133 : 413 – 418 .
  • Chu , J. A. 2011 . Rebuilding shattered lives: Treating complex PTSD and dissociative disorders , 2nd , New York, NY : Wiley .
  • Courtois , C. A. and Ford , J. D. 2009 . Treating complex traumatic stress disorder: An evidence-based guide , New York, NY : Guilford Press .
  • Dalenberg , C. and Carlson , E. 2010 . New versions of the Dissociative Experiences Scale: The DES-R (revised) and the DES-B (brief) , Montreal, , Quebec : Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, November .
  • Dalenberg , C. , Loewenstein , R. , Spiegel , D. , Brewin , C. , Lanius , R. , Frankel , S. … and Paulson , K. 2007 . Scientific study of the dissociative disorders . Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics , 76 : 400 – 401 . author reply 401–403. doi: 10.1159/000107570
  • Dell , P. F. 2006 . The Multidimensional Inventory of Dissociation (MID): A comprehensive measure of pathological dissociation . Journal of Trauma & Dissociation , 7 : 77 – 106 .
  • Dell , P. F. and O'Neil , J. A. 2009 . Dissociation and the dissociative disorders: DSM-V and beyond , New York, NY : Routledge .
  • Ebner-Priemer , U. W. , Mauchnik , J. , Kleindienst , N. , Schmahl , C. , Peper , M. , Rosenthal , M. Z. … and Bohus , M. 2009 . Emotional learning during dissociative states in borderline personality disorder . Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience , 34 : 214 – 222 .
  • Etkin , A. and Wager , T. D. 2007 . Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: A meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia . American Journal of Psychiatry , 164 : 1476 – 1488 . doi: doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07030504
  • Fanselow , M. S. , Lester , L. S. and Helmstetter , F. J. 1988 . Changes in feeding and foraging patterns as an antipredator defensive strategy . A laboratory simulation using aversive stimulation in a closed economy. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior , 50 : 361 – 374 . doi: doi: 10.1901/jeab.1988.50-361
  • Felmingham , K. , Kemp , A. H. , Williams , L. M. , Falconer , E. , Oliveri , G. , Peduto , A. and Bryant , R. 2008 . Dissociative responses to conscious and non-conscious fear impact underlying brain function in post-traumatic stress disorders . Psychological Medicine , 25 : 1 – 10 . doi: doi: 10.1017/S0033291708002742
  • Fiszman , A. , Mendlowicz , M. V. , Marques-Portella , C. , Volchan , E. , Coutinho , E. S. , Souza , W. F. … and Figueira , I. 2008 . Peritraumatic tonic immobility predicts a poor response to pharmacological treatment in victims of urban violence with PTSD . Journal of Affective Disorders , 107 : 193 – 197 . doi: doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2007.07.015
  • Foote , B. , Smolin , Y. , Neft , D. and Lipschitz , D. 2008 . Dissociative disorders and suicidality in psychiatric outpatients . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 196 : 29 – 36 .
  • Forgash , C. and Copeley , M. 2007 . Healing the heart of trauma and dissociation with EMDR and ego state therapy , New York, NY : Springer .
  • Francati , V. , Vermetten , E. and Bremner , J. D. 2007 . Functional neuroimaging studies in posttraumatic stress disorder: Review of current methods and findings . Depression and Anxiety , 24 : 202 – 218 . doi: doi: 10.1002/da.20208
  • Friedman , M. J. , Resick , P. A. , Bryant , R. A. and Brewin , C. R. 2010 . Considering PTSD for DSM-5 . Depression and Anxiety , 28 : 750 – 769 . doi: doi: 10.1002/da.20767
  • Friedman , M. J. , Resick , P. , Bryant , R. , Strain , J. , Horowitz , M. J. and Spiegel , D. 2011 . Classification of trauma and stressor-related disorders in DSM-5 . Depression and Anxiety , 28 : 737 – 749 . doi: doi: 10.1002/da.20845
  • Geuze , E. , Westenberg , H. G. , Jochims , A. , de Kloet , C. S. , Bohus , M. , Vermetten , E. and Schmahl , C. 2007 . Altered pain processing in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder . Archives of General Psychiatry , 64 : 76 – 85 . doi: doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.64.1.76
  • Hagenaars , M. A. , van Minnen , A. and Hoogduin , K. A. 2010 . The impact of dissociation and depression on the efficacy of prolonged exposure treatment for PTSD . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 48 : 19 – 27 . doi: doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2009.09.001
  • Hebert , M. and Tourigny , M. 2010 . Effects of a psychoeducational group intervention for children victims of sexual abuse . Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma , 3 : 143 – 160 .
  • Heidt , J. M. , Marx , B. P. and Forsyth , J. P. 2005 . Tonic immobility and childhood sexual abuse: A preliminary report evaluating the sequela of rape-induced paralysis . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 43 : 1157 – 1171 . doi: doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2004.08.005
  • Hennig-Fast , K. , Meister , F. , Frodl , T. , Beraldi , A. , Padberg , F. , Engel , R. R. … and Meindl , T. 2008 . A case of persistent retrograde amnesia following a dissociative fugue: Neuropsychological and neurofunctional underpinnings of loss of autobiographical memory and self-awareness . Neuropsychologia , 46 : 2993 – 3005 . doi: doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.06.014
  • Hopper , J. W. , Frewen , P. A. , Sack , M. , Lanius , R. A. and van der Kolk , B. A. 2007 . The responses to script-driven imagery scale (RSDI): Assessment of state posttraumatic symptoms for psychobiological and treatment research . Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment , 20 : 249 – 268 .
  • Howell , E. F. 2005 . The dissociative mind , London, , England : Analytic Press .
  • Humphreys , K. L. , Sauder , C. L. , Martin , E. K. and Marx , B. P. 2010 . Tonic immobility in childhood sexual abuse survivors and its relationship to posttraumatic stress symptomatology . Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 25 : 358 – 373 . doi: doi: 10.1177/0886260509334412
  • International Society for the Study of Trauma and Dissociation . 2011 . Guidelines for treating dissociative identity disorder in adults, Third revision . Journal of Trauma & Dissociation , 12 : 115 – 187 .
  • Irle , E. , Lange , C. , Sachsse , U. and Weniger , G. 2009 . Further evidence that post-traumatic stress disorder but not dissociative disorders are related to amygdala and hippocampal size reduction in trauma-exposed individuals . Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica , 119 : 330 – 331 . discussion 331. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2009.01351.x
  • Kikuchi , H. , Fujii , T. , Abe , N. , Suzuki , M. , Takagi , M. , Mugikura , S. … and Mori , E. 2010 . Memory repression: Brain mechanisms underlying dissociative amnesia . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 22 : 602 – 613 . doi: doi: 10.1162/jocn.2009.21212
  • Kleindienst , N. , Limberger , M. F. , Ebner-Piemer , U. W. , Mauchnik , J. , Dyer , A. , Berger , M. … and Bohus , M. 2011 . Dissociation predicts poor response to dialectical behavior therapy in female patients with borderline personality disorder . Journal of Personality Disorder , 25 ( 4 ) : 432 – 447 . doi: doi: 10.1521/pedi.2011.25.4.432
  • Klotz Flitter , J. M. , Elhai , J. D. and Gold , S. N. 2003 . MMPI-2 F scale elevations in adult victims of child sexual abuse . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 16 : 269 – 274 . doi: doi: 10.1023/A:1023700208696
  • Kraus , A. , Esposito , F. , Seifritz , E. , Di Salle , F. , Ruf , M. , Valerius , G. … and Schmahl , C. 2009 . Amygdala deactivation as a neural correlate of pain processing in patients with borderline personality disorder and co-occurrent posttraumatic stress disorder . Biological Psychiatry , 65 : 819 – 822 . doi: doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.10.028
  • Lanius , R. A. , Bluhm , R. , Lanius , U. and Pain , C. 2006 . A review of neuroimaging studies in PTSD: Heterogeneity of response to symptom provocation . Journal of Psychiatric Research , 40 : 709 – 729 . doi: doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2005.07.007
  • Lanius , R. A. , Vermetten , E. , Loewenstein , R. J. , Brand , B. , Schmahl , C. , Bremner , J. D. and Spiegel , D. 2010 . Emotion modulation in PTSD: Clinical and neurobiological evidence for a dissociative subtype . American Journal of Psychiatry , 167 : 640 – 647 . doi: doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09081168
  • Lanius , R. A. , Vermetten , E. and Pain , C. , eds. 2010 . The impact of early life trauma on health and disease: The hidden epidemic , Cambridge, , England : Cambridge University Press .
  • LeDoux , J. 2002 . Synapic self , New York, NY : Penguin Books .
  • Lemche , E. , Surguladze , S. A. , Giampietro , V. P. , Anilkumar , A. , Brammer , M. J. , Sierra , M. … and Phillips , M. L. 2007 . Limbic and prefrontal responses to facial emotion expressions in depersonalization . Neuroreport , 18 : 473 – 477 . doi: doi: 10.1097/WNR.0b013e328057deb3
  • Loewenstein , R. J. 1994 . Diagnosis, epidemiology, clinical course, treatment, and cost effectiveness of treatment for dissociative disorders and multiple personality disorder: Report submitted to the Clinton administration task force on health care financing reform . Dissociation , 7 : 3 – 11 .
  • Ludascher , P. , Valerius , G. , Stiglmayr , C. , Mauchnik , J. , Lanius , R. A. , Bohus , M. and Schmahl , C. 2010 . Pain sensitivity and neural processing during dissociative states in patients with borderline personality disorder with and without comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder: A pilot study . Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience , 35 : 177 – 184 . doi: doi: 10.1503/jpn.090022
  • Macy , R. M. 2002 . On the epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: Period prevalence rates and acute service utilization rates among Massachusetts Medicaid Program and enrollees , Baltimore, MD : Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, November .
  • Mansfield , A. J. , Kaufman , J. S. , Marshall , S. W. , Gaynes , B. N. , Morrissey , J. P. and Engel , C. C. 2010 . Deployment and the use of mental health services among U.S. Army wives . New England Journal of Medicine , 362 : 101 – 109 . doi: doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0900177
  • Mickleborough , M. J. , Daniels , J. K. , Coupland , N. J. , Kao , R. , Williamson , P. C. , Lanius , U. F. … and Lanius , R. A. 2011 . Effects of trauma-related cues on pain processing in posttraumatic stress disorder: An fMRI investigation . Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience , 36 : 6 – 14 . doi: doi: 10.1503/jpn.080188
  • Nijenhuis , E. R. , Vanderlinden , J. and Spinhoven , P. 1998 . Animal defensive reactions as a model for trauma-induced dissociative reactions . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 11 : 243 – 260 . doi: doi: 10.1023/A:1024447003022
  • Paivio , S. and Pascual-Leone , A. 2010 . Emotion-focused therapy for complex trauma: An integrative approach , Washington, DC : American Psychological Association .
  • Petrakis , I. L. , Poling , J. , Levinson , C. , Nich , C. , Carroll , K. , Ralevski , E. and Rounsaville , B. 2006 . Naltrexone and disulfiram in patients with alcohol dependence and comorbid post-traumatic stress disorder . Biological Psychiatry , 60 : 777 – 783 . doi: doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.074
  • Pfeiffer , A. , Brantl , V. , Herz , A. and Emrich , H. M. 1986 . Psychotomimesis mediated by kappa opiate receptors . Science , 233 August 15 : 774 – 776 . doi: doi: 10.1126/science.3016896
  • Pitman , R. K. , van der Kolk , B. A. , Orr , S. P. and Greenberg , M. S. 1990 . Naloxone-reversible analgesic response to combat-related stimuli in posttraumatic stress disorder: A pilot study . Archives of General Psychiatry , 47 : 541 – 544 .
  • Pivac , N. and Kozaric-Kovacic , D. 2006 . Pharmacotherapy of treatment-resistant combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder with psychotic features . Croatian Medical Journal , 47 : 440 – 451 .
  • Reinders , A. A. T. S. , Nijenhuis , E. R. S. , Quak , J. , Korf , J. , Haaksma , J. , Paans , A. M. J. … and den Boer , J. A. 2006 . Psychobiological characteristics of dissociative identity disorder: A symptom provocation study . Biological Psychiatry , 60 : 730 – 740 . doi: doi: 10.1016/jbiopsych2005.12.019
  • Rocha-Rego , V. , Fiszman , A. , Portugal , L. C. , Garcia Pereira , M. , de Oliveira , L. , Mendlowicz , M. V. … and Volchan , E. 2009 . Is tonic immobility the core sign among conventional peritraumatic signs and symptoms listed for PTSD? . Journal of Affective Disorders , 115 : 269 – 273 . doi: doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2008.09.005
  • Roeder , C. H. , Michal , M. , Overbeck , G. , van der Ven , V. G. and Linden , D. E. J. 2007 . Pain response in depersonalization: A functional imaging study using hypnosis in healthy subjects . Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics , 76 : 115 – 121 .
  • Rogers , R. , Kropp , P. R. , Bagby , R. M. and Dickens , S. E. 1992 . Faking specific disorders: A study of the Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms (SIRS) . Journal of Clinical Psychology , 48 : 643 – 648 .
  • Rogers , R. , Payne , J. W. , Correa , A. A. , Gillard , N. D. and Ross , C. A. 2009 . A study of the SIRS with severely traumatized patients . Journal of Personality Assessment , 91 : 429 – 438 . doi: doi: 10.1080/00223890903087745
  • Rogers , R. , Sewell , K. W. and Gillard , N. D. 2010 . Structured Interview of Reported Symptoms , Lutz, FL : Psychological Assessment Resources .
  • Ross , C. A. and Halpern , N. 2009 . Trauma model therapy: A treatment approach for trauma, dissociation and complex comorbidity , Richardson, TX : Manitou Communications .
  • Sar , V. , Akyuz , G. and Dogan , O. 2007 . Prevalence of dissociative disorders among women in the general population . Psychiatry Research , 149 : 169 – 176 . doi: doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2006.01.005
  • Schmahl , C. , Bohus , M. , Esposito , F. , Treede , R. D. , Di Salle , F. , Greffrath , W. … and Seifritz , E. 2006 . Neural correlates of antinociception in borderline personality disorder . Archives of General Psychiatry , 63 : 659 – 667 . doi: doi: 10.1001/archpsyc.63.6.659
  • Seligman , M. E. 1972 . Learned helplessness . Annual Review of Medicine , 23 : 407 – 412 .
  • Shin , L. M. , Wright , C. I. , Cannistraro , P. A. , Wedig , M. M. , McMullin , K. , Martis , B. … and Rauch , S. L. 2005 . A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex responses to overtly presented fearful faces in posttraumatic stress disorder . Archives of General Psychiatry , 62 : 273 – 281 .
  • Sierra , M. 2008 . Depersonalization disorder Pharmacological approaches . Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics , 8 : 19 – 26 . doi: doi: 10.1586/14737175.8.1.19
  • Silberg , J. in press . The child survivor: Healing development trauma and dissociation , New York, NY : Routledge .
  • Simeon , D. , Guralnik , O. , Schmeidler , J. and Knutelska , M. 2004 . Fluoxetine therapy in depersonalisation disorder: Randomised controlled trial . British Journal of Psychiatry , 185 : 31 – 36 . doi: doi: 10.1192/bjp.185.1.31
  • Simeon , D. , Hollander , E. , Stein , D. J. , DeCaria , C. , Cohen , L. J. , Saoud , J. B. … and Hwang , M. 1995 . Induction of depersonalization by the serotonin agonist meta-chlorophenylpiperazine . Psychiatry Research , 58 : 161 – 164 . doi: doi: 0165-1781(95)02538-8
  • Simeon , D. and Knutelska , M. 2005 . An open trial of naltrexone in the treatment of depersonalization disorder . Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology , 25 : 267 – 270 . doi: doi: 00004714-200506000-00013
  • Simeon , D. , Stein , D. J. and Hollander , E. 1995 . Depersonalization disorder and self-injurious behavior . Journal of Clinical Psychiatry , 56 ( Suppl. 4 ) : 36 – 39 . discussion 40
  • Sinason , V. 2011 . Attachment, trauma and multiplicity: Working with dissociative identity disorder , 2nd , New York, NY : Routledge .
  • Somer , E. 2003 . Prediction of abstinence from heroin addiction by childhood trauma, dissociation, and extent of psychosocial treatment . Addiction Research & Theory , 11 : 339 – 348 .
  • Spiegel , D. 2010 . Dissociation in the DSM5 . Journal of Trauma & Dissociation , 11 : 261 – 265 . doi: doi: 10.1080/15299731003780788
  • Spitzer , C. , Barnow , S. , Freyberger , H. J. and Grabe , H. J. 2007 . Dissociation predicts symptom-related treatment outcome in short-term inpatient psychotherapy . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , 41 : 682 – 687 . doi: doi: 10.1080/00048670701449146
  • Stiglmayr , C. , Schmahl , C. , Bremner , J. D. , Bohus , M. and Ebner-Priemer , U. 2009 . Development and psychometric characteristics of the DSS-4 as a short instrument to assess dissociative experience during neuropsychological experiments . Psychopathology , 42 : 370 – 374 . doi: doi: 10.1159/000236908
  • Tamar-Gurol , D. , Sar , V. , Karadag , F. , Evren , C. and Karagoz , M. 2008 . Childhood emotional abuse, dissociation, and suicidality among patients with drug dependency in Turkey . Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences , 62 : 540 – 547 . doi: doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1819.2008.01847.x
  • van der Hart , O. , Nijenhuis , E. and Steele , K. 2006 . The haunted self: Structural dissociation and the treatment of chronic traumatization , New York, NY : W.W. Norton .
  • van der Kolk , B. A. , Greenberg , M. S. , Orr , S. P. and Pitman , R. K. 1989 . Endogenous opiods and stress induced analgesia in post-traumatic stress disorder . Psychopharmacology Bulletin , 25 : 108 – 112 .
  • van der Kolk , B. A. , van der Hart , O. and Marmar , C. R. 1996 . “ Dissociation and information processing in posttraumatic stress disorder ” . In Traumatic stress , Edited by: van der Kolk , B. , McFarlane , A. C. and Weisaeth , L. 303 – 327 . New York, NY : Guilford Press .
  • Vermetten , E. , Doherty , M. and Spiegel , D. 2007 . Traumatic dissociation: Neurobiology and treatment , Arlington, VA : American Psychiatric Press .
  • Vermetten , E. , Schmahl , C. , Lindner , S. , Loewenstein , R. J. and Bremner , J. D. 2006 . Hippocampal and amygdalar volumes in dissociative identity disorder . American Journal of Psychiatry , 163 : 630 – 636 . doi: doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.163.4.630
  • Walsh , S. L. , Geter-Douglas , B. , Strain , E. C. and Bigelow , G. E. 2001 . Enadoline and butorphanol: Evaluation of kappa-agonists on cocaine pharmacodynamics and cocaine self-administration in humans . Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics , 299 : 147 – 158 .
  • Weniger , G. , Lange , C. , Sachsse , U. and Irle , E. 2008 . Amygdala and hippocampal volumes and cognition in adult survivors of childhood abuse with dissociative disorders . Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica , 118 : 281 – 290 . doi: doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2008.01246.x
  • Wieland , S. 2011 . Dissociation in traumatized children and adolescents: Theory and clinical interventions , New York, NY : Routledge .
  • Woodward , S. H. , Kaloupek , D. G. , Streeter , C. C. , Kimble , M. O. , Reiss , A. L. , Eliez , S. … and Arsenault , N. J. 2006 . Hippocampal volume, PTSD, and alcoholism in combat veterans . American Journal of Psychiatry , 163 : 674 – 681 . doi: doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.163.4.674

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.