Nonconventional interventions for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder: Ketamine, repetitive trans-cranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), and alternative approaches

References

• Aan Het Rot, M., Zarate, C. A., Charney, D. S., & Mathew, S. J. (2012). Ketamine for depression: Where do we go from here? Biological Psychiatry, 72(7), 537–547. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.05.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker, J. D., & Azorlosa, J. L. (1996). The NMDA antagonist MK-801 blocks the extinction of Pavlovian fear conditioning. Behavioral Neuroscience, 110(3), 618–620. doi:10.1037/0735-7044.110.3.618
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Balasubramaniam, M., Telles, S., & Doraiswamy, P. M. (2013). Yoga on our minds: A systematic review of yoga for neuropsychiatric disorders. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 3(117), 1–16. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2012.00117
   Google Scholar
• Becker, C. B., Zayfert, C., & Anderson, E. (2004). A survey of psychologists’ attitudes towards and utilization of exposure therapy for PTSD. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42(3), 277–292.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanchard, E. B., Hickling, E. J., Buckley, T. C., Taylor, A. E., Vollmer, A., & Loos, W. R. (1996). Psychophysiology of posttraumatic stress disorder related to motor vehicle accidents: Replication and extension. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(4), 742–751.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boggio, P. S., Rocha, M., Oliveira, M. O., Fecteau, S., Cohen, R. B., Campanha, C., & Fregni, F. (2010). Noninvasive brain stimulation with high-frequency and low-intensity repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 71(8), 992–999. doi:10.4088/JCP.08m04638blu
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bormann, J. E., Thorp, S., Wetherell, J. L., & Golshan, S. (2008). A spiritually based group intervention for combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: Feasibility study. Journal of Holistic Nursing, 26(2), 109–116. doi:10.1177/0898010107311276
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bouton, M. E., & Bolles, R. C. (1979). Role of conditioned contextual stimuli in reinstatement of extinguished fear. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 5(4), 368–378. doi:10.1037/0097-7403.5.4.368
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, R. P., & Gerbarg, P. L. (2005). Sudarshan Kriya yogic breathing in the treatment of stress, anxiety, and depression: Part II—Clinical applications and guidelines. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 11(4), 711–717. doi:10.1089/acm.2005.11.711
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brunet, A., Orr, S. P., Tremblay, J., Robertson, K., Nader, K., & Pitman, R. K. (2008). Effect of post-retrieval propranolol on psychophysiologic responding during subsequent script-driven traumatic imagery in post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42(6), 503–506. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2007.05.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bustos, G., Abarca, J., Forray, M. I., Gysling, K., Bradberry, C. W., & Roth, R. H. (1992). Regulation of excitatory amino acid release by N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors in rat striatum: In vivo microdialysis studies. Brain Research, 585(1–2), 105–115. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(92)91195-K
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cammarota, M., Bevilaqua, L. R., Bonini, J. S., Rossatto, J. I., Medina, J. H., & Izquierdo, N. (2004). Hippocampal glutamate receptors in fear memory consolidation. Neurotoxicity Research, 6(3), 205–212. doi:10.1007/BF03033222
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter, J., & Byrne, G. (2004). A two year study of the use of yoga in a series of pilot studies as an adjunct to ordinary psychiatric treatment in a group of Vietnam war veterans suffering from post traumatic stress disorder. Retrieved from http://www.therapywithyoga.com/Vivekananda.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Chambers, R. A., Bremner, J. D., Moghaddam, B., Southwick, S. M., Charney, D. S., & Krystal, J. H. (1999). Glutamate and post-traumatic stress disorder: Toward a psychobiology of dissociation. Seminars in Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 4(4), 274–281.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cisler, J. M., Steele, J. S., Lenow, J. K., Smitherman, S., Everett, B., Messias, E., & Kilts, C. D. (2014). Functional reorganization of neural networks during repeated exposure to the traumatic memory in posttraumatic stress disorder: An exploratory fMRI study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 48(1), 47–55. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.09.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, H., Kaplan, Z., Kotler, M., Kouperman, I., Moisa, R., & Grisaru, N. (2004). Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in posttraumatic stress disorder: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(3), 515–524. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.3.515
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cristancho, M. A., Cristancho, P., & O'Reardon, J. P. (2013). Other therapeutic psychiat-ric uses of superficial brain stimulation. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 116, 415–422.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cukor, J., Spitalnick, J., Difede, J., Rizzo, A., & Rothbaum, B. O. (2009). Emerging treatments for PTSD. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(8), 715–726. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.09.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis, M., Ressler, K., Rothbaum, B. O., & Richardson, R. (2006). Effects of D-cycloserine on extinction: Translation from preclinical to clinical work. Biological Psychiatry, 60(4), 369–375. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.084
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiazGranados, N., Ibrahim, L. A., Brutsche, N. E., Ameli, R., Henter, I. D., Luckenbaugh, D. A., & Zarate, C. A. (2010). Rapid resolution of suicidal ideation after a single infusion of an N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist in patients with treatment-resistant major depressive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 71(12), 1605–1611. doi:10.4088/JCP.09m05327blu
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Falls, W. A., Miserendino, M. J., & Davis, M. (1992). Extinction of fear-potentiated startle: Blockade by infusion of an NMDA antagonist into the amygdala. Journal of Neuroscience, 12(3), 854–863.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farina, B., Imperatori, C., Quintiliani, M. I., Castelli Gattinara, P., Onofri, A., Lepore, M., & Della Marca, G. (2014). Neurophysiological correlates of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing sessions: Preliminary evidence for traumatic memories integration. Clinical Physiology and Functional Imaging. Advance online publication. doi:10.1111/cpf.12184
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feder, A., Parides, M. K., Murrough, J. W., Perez, A. M., Morgan, J. E., Saxena, S., & Charney, D. S. (2014). Efficacy of intravenous ketamine for treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry, 71(6), 681–688.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foa, E. B., Hembree, E. A., & Rothbaum, B. O. (2007). Prolonged exposure therapy for PTSD: Emotional processing of traumatic experiences: Therapist guide. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ford, J. D., Courtois, C. A., Steele, K., Hart, O., & Nijenhuis, E. R. (2005). Treatment of complex posttraumatic self-dysregulation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18(5), 437–447.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gabr, R. W., Birkle, D. L., & Azzaro, A. J. (1995). Stimulation of the amygdala by glutamate facilitates corticotropin-releasing factor release from the median eminence and activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in stressed rats. Neuroendocrinology, 62(4), 333–339. doi:10.1159/000127022
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gangadhar, B. N., Janakiramaiah, N., Sudarshan, B., and Shety, K.T. (1999). Stress-Related Biochemical Effects of Sudarshan Kriya Yoga in Depressed Patients Studyconducted by the National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), Bangalore, India and published in reports of the Art of Living Foundation International Research Committee.
   Google Scholar
• Grisaru, N., Amir, M., Cohen, H., & Kaplan, Z. (1998). Effect of transcranial magnetic stimulation in posttraumatic stress disorder: A preliminary study. Biological Psychiatry, 44(1), 52–55. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(98)00016-X
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heim, C., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2002). Neurobiology of early life stress: Clinical studies. Seminars in Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 7(2), 147–159. doi:10.1053/scnp.2002.33127
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hoge, C. W., Grossman, S. H., Auchterlonie, J. L., Riviere, L. A., Milliken, C. S., & Wilk, J. E. (2014). PTSD treatment for soldiers after combat deployment: Low utilization of mental health care and reasons for dropout. Psychiatric Services, 65, 997–1004. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201300307
   Google Scholar
• Huntley, G. W., Vickers, J. C., & Morrison, J. H. (1994). Cellular and synaptic localization of NMDA and non-NMDA receptor subunits in neocortex: Organizational features related to cortical circuitry, function and disease. Trends in Neurosciences, 17(12), 536–543. doi:10.1016/0166-2236(94)90158-9
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ipser, J. C., Pillay, N. S., Stein, D. J., & Van Honk, J. (2007). Transcranial magnetic stimulation for post-traumatic stress disorder. The Cochrane Library. USA: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
   Google Scholar
• Isserles, M., Shalev, A. Y., Roth, Y., Peri, T., Kutz, I., Zlotnick, E., & Zangen, A. (2013). Effectiveness of deep transcranial magnetic stimulation combined with a brief exposure procedure in post-traumatic stress disorder: A pilot study. Brain Stimulation, 6(3), 377–383. doi:10.1016/j.brs.2012.07.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Iyengar, B. K. S. (2007). BKS iyengar yoga: The path to holistic health Penguin. UK: Penguin Books.
   Google Scholar
• Jeffrey, R. (2009). A brief report of research: Evaluating the effects of ketamine on memory in posttraumatic stress disorder. Dimensions of Critical Care Nursing, 28(2), 83. doi:10.1097/DCC.0b013e31819af560
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jezová, D., Tokarev, D., & Rusnák, M. (1995). Endogenous excitatory amino acids are involved in stress-induced adrenocorticotropin and catecholamine release. Neuroendocrinology, 62(4), 326–332. doi:10.1159/000127021
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joca, S. R., Ferreira, F. R., & Guimarães, F. S. (2007). Modulation of stress consequences by hippocampal monoaminergic, glutamatergic and nitrergic neurotransmitter systems. Stress, 10(3), 227–249. doi:10.1080/10253890701223130
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kandel, E. R. (2001). The molecular biology of memory storage: A dialogue between genes and synapses (Nobel lecture). Bioscience Reports, 21, 565–611. doi:10.1023/A:1014775008533
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karsen, E. F., Watts, B. V., & Holtzheimer, P. E. (2014). Review of the effectiveness of transcranial magnetic stimulation for post-traumatic stress disorder. Brain Stimulation, 7(2), 151–157. doi:10.1016/j.brs.2013.10.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keane, T. M., Kolb, L. C., Kaloupek, D. G., Orr, S. P., Blanchard, E. B., Thomas, R. G., … Lavori, P. W. (1998). Utility of psychophysiology measurement in the diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder: Results from a department of Veteran’s Affairs cooperative study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(6), 914–923. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.66.6.914
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., Chiu, W. T., Demler, O., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM–IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 617–627. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilpatrick, D. G., & Best, C. L. (1984). Some cautionary remarks on treating sexual assault victims with implosion. Behavior Therapy, 15(4), 421–423.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, K. H., Inan, S. Y., Berman, R. F., & Pessah, I. N. (2009). Excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission is differentially influenced by two ortho-substituted polychlorinat-ed biphenyls in the hippocampal slice preparation. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacolo-gy, 237(2), 168–177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kjaer, T. W., Bertelsen, C., Piccini, P., Brooks, D., Alving, J., & Lou, H. C. (2002). Increased dopamine tone during meditation-induced change of consciousness. Cognitive Brain Research, 13(2), 255–259. doi:10.1016/S0926-6410(01)00106-9
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kvavilashvili, L. (2014). Solving the mystery of intrusive flashbacks in posttraumatic stress disorder: Comment on Brewin (2014). Psychological Bulletin, 140(1), 98–104. doi:10.1037/a0034677
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang, A. J., Strauss, J. L., Bomyea, J., Bormann, J. E., Hickman, S. D., Good, R. C., & Essex, M. (2012). The theoretical and empirical basis for meditation as an intervention for PTSD. Behavior Modification, 36, 759–786. doi:10.1177/0145445512441200
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ledgerwood, L., Richardson, R., & Cranney, J. (2005). D-cycloserine facilitates extinction of learned fear: Effects on reacquisition and generalized extinction. Biological Psychiatry, 57(8), 841–847. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.01.023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, N., Lee, B., Liu, R.-J., Banasr, M., Dwyer, J. M., Iwata, M., … Duman, R. S. (2010, August 20). mTOR-dependent synapse formation underlies the rapid antidepressant effects of NMDA antagonists. Science, 329, 959–964. doi:10.1126/science.1190287
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, J., & Moghaddam, B. (1995). Regulation of glutamate efflux by excitatory amino acid receptors: Evidence for tonic inhibitory and phasic excitatory regulation. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 274(3), 1209–1215.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mac Cluskie, K. C. (1998). A review of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): Research findings and implications for counsellors. Canadian Journal of Counselling, 32(2), 116–137.
   Google Scholar
• Malsert, J., Guyader, N., Chauvin, A., Polosan, M., Szekely, D., Bougerol, T., & Marendaz, C. (2013). Saccadic performance and cortical excitability as trait-markers and state-markers in rapid cycling bipolar disorder: A two case follow up study. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 3, 112. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2012.00112
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Miwa, A., Robinson, H. P., & Kawai, N. (1993). Presynaptic glutamate receptors depress inhibitory postsynaptic transmission in lobster neuromuscular synapse. Journal of Neurophysiology, 70(3), 1159–1167.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moghaddam, B., Adams, B., Verma, A., & Daly, D. (1997). Activation of glutamatergic neurotransmission by ketamine: A novel step in the pathway from NMDA receptor blockade to dopaminergic and cognitive disruptions associated with the prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 17(8), 2921–2927.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Monfils, M., Cowansage, K. K., Klann, E., & LeDoux, J. E. (2009, May 15). Extinction-reconsolidation boundaries: Key to persistent attenuation of fear memories. Science, 324, 951–955. doi:10.1126/science.1167975
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morgan, C. J., Riccelli, M., Maitland, C. H., & Curran, H. V. (2004). Long-term effects of ketamine: Evidence for a persisting impairment of source memory in recreational users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 75(3), 301–308. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2004.03.006
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morris, J. S., Öhman, A., & Dolan, R. J. (1998, June 4). Conscious and unconscious emotional learning in the human amygdala. Nature, 393, 467–470. doi:10.1038/30976
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Murrough, J. W., Iosifescu, D. V., Chang, L. C., Al Jurdi, R. K., Green, C. E., Perez, A. M., & Mathew, S. J. (2013). Antidepressant efficacy of ketamine in treatment-resistant major depression: A two-site randomized controlled trial. American Journal of Psychiatry, 170(10), 1134–1142.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nair, J., & Singh Ajit, S. (2008). The role of the glutamatergic system in posttraumatic stress disorder. CNS Spectrums, 13(7), 585–591.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orr, S. P., Lasko, N. B., Metzger, L. J., Berry, N. J., Ahern, C. E., & Pitman, R. K. (1998). Psychophysiologic assessment of women with posttraumatic stress disorder resulting from childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66(6), 906–913. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.66.6.906
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orr, S. P., Metzger, L. J., Lasko, N. B., Macklin, M. L., Peri, T., & Pitman, R. K. (2000). De novo conditioning in trauma-exposed individuals with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(2), 290–298. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.109.2.290
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osuch, E. A., Benson, B. E., Luckenbaugh, D. A., Geraci, M., Post, R. M., & McCann, U. (2009). Repetitive TMS combined with exposure therapy for PTSD: A preliminary study. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23(1), 54–59. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.03.015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pal, H. R., Berry, N., Kumar, R., & Ray, R. (2002). Ketamine dependence. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care, 30(3), 382–384.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pallanti, S., & Bernardi, S. (2009). Neurobiology of repeated transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of anxiety: A critical review. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 24(4), 163–173. doi:10.1097/YIC.0b013e32832c2639
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitman, R. K., Altman, B., Greenwald, E., Re, L., Macklin, M. L., Poiré, R. E., & Steketee, G. S. (1991). Psychiatric complications during flooding therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 52(1), 17–20.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitman, R. K., Sanders, K. M., Zusman, R. M., Healy, A. R., Cheema, F., Lasko, N. B., & Orr, S. P. (2002). Pilot study of secondary prevention of posttraumatic stress disorder with propranolol. Biological Psychiatry, 51(2), 189–192. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(01)01279-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Portas, C. M., Rees, G., Howseman, A. M., Josephs, O., Turner, R., & Frith, C. D. (1998). A specific role for the thalamus in mediating the interaction of attention and arousal in humans. Journal of Neuroscience, 18(21), 8979–8989.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pradhan, B. K. (2014). Yoga and mindfulness based cognitive therapy—A clinical guide. Switzerland: Springer International.
   Google Scholar
• Pradhan, B. K., Gray, R. M., Parikh, T., Akkireddi, P., & Pumariega, A. (2015). Trauma interventions using Mindfulness Based Extinction and Reconsolidation (TIMBER©) as monotherapy for chronic PTSD: A pilot study. Adolescent Psychiatry, 5(2), 125–131. doi:10.2174/221067660502150430155038
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pradhan, B.K., Pumariega A.J., Goldberg M., Torjman M., Wainer I. (ongoing study from 8/2013-Present): Combined ketamine and mindfulness based cognitive therapy for patients with refractory post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Comparison of treatment efficacy and pharmaco-genomic and metabolomic profiles. Collaborative study between Departments of Psy-chiatry and Anesthesia at the Cooper University Hospital, Camden, NJ and the Bio-analytical Chemistry and Drug Discovery Section of the National Institute on Aging (NIA/NIH).
   Google Scholar
• Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1(3), 385–401. doi:10.1177/014662167700100306
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raskind, M. A., Peskind, E. R., Hoff, D. J., Hart, K. L., Holmes, H. A., Warren, D., & McFall, M. E. (2007). A parallel group placebo controlled study of prazosin for trauma nightmares and sleep disturbance in combat veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 61(8), 928–934. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.06.032
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ravindran, L. N., & Stein, M. B. (2009). Pharmacotherapy of PTSD: Premises, principles, and priorities. Brain Research, 1293, 24–39. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2009.03.037
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg, P. B., Mehndiratta, R. B., Mehndiratta, Y. P., Wamer, A., Rosse, R. B., & Balish, M. (2002). Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation treatment of comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder and major depression. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 14(3), 270–276. doi:10.1176/jnp.14.3.270
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rossi, S., De Capua, A., Tavanti, M., Calossi, S., Polizzotto, N. R., Mantovani, A., & Ulivelli, M. (2009). Dysfunctions of cortical excitability in drug-naive posttraumatic stress disorder patients. Biological Psychiatry, 66(1), 54–61. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.03.008
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sageman, S. (2002). How SK can treat the cognitive, psychodynamic, and neuropsychiatric problems of post traumatic stress disorder. In Proceedings: Science of Breath. International Symposium on Sudarshan Kriya, Pranayam and Consciousness, March 2–3, 2002, New Delhi, New Delhi: All India Institute of Medical Sciences, 2002; 29–32.
   Google Scholar
• Satchidananda, S. (1990). The yoga sutras of patanjali. Yogaville, WV: Integral Yoga Dist.
   Google Scholar
• Schiller, D., Monfils, M.-H., Raio, C. M., Johnson, D. C., Ledoux, J. E., & Phelps, E. A. (2010, January 7). Preventing the return of fear in humans using reconsolidation update mechanisms. Nature, 463, 49–53. doi:10.1038/nature08637
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schönenberg, M., Reichwald, U., Domes, G., Badke, A., & Hautzinger, M. (2008). Ketamine aggravates symptoms of acute stress disorder in a naturalistic sample of accident victims. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 22(5), 493–497. doi:10.1177/0269881107082481
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapiro, F. (1999). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) and the anxiety disorders: Clinical and research implications of an integrated psychotherapy treatment. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 13(1–2), 35–67. doi:10.1016/S0887-6185(98)00038-3
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shapiro, F. (2001). Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing: Basic principles, protocols, and procedures (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Shin, L. M., & Liberzon, I. (2010). The neurocircuitry of fear, stress, and anxiety disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35, 169–191. doi:10.1038/npp.2009.83
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegelbaum, S., Kandel, E., & Yuste, R. (2013). Synaptic integration in the central nerv-ous system. Principles of Neural Science, 5th Edn. McGraw-Hill, New York, 210–235.
   Google Scholar
• Stein, D. J., Ipser, J. C., & Seedat, S. (2006). Pharmacotherapy for post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 1(1). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002795.pub2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stickgold, R. (2002). EMDR: A putative neurobiological mechanism of action. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(1), 61–75. doi:10.1002/jclp.1129
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strayer, R. J., & Nelson, L. S. (2008). Adverse events associated with ketamine for procedural sedation in adults. American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 26(9), 985–1028. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2007.12.005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Streeter, C. C., Jensen, J. E., Perlmutter, R. M., Cabral, H. J., Tian, H., Terhune, D. B., … Renshaw, P. F. (2007). Yoga asana sessions increase brain GABA levels: A pilot study. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 13(4), 419–426. doi:10.1089/acm.2007.6338
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Streeter, C. C., Whitfield, T. H., Owen, L., Rein, T., Karri, S. K., Yakhkind, A., … Jensen, J. E. (2010). Effects of yoga versus walking on mood, anxiety, and brain GABA levels: A randomized controlled MRS study. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 16(11), 1145–1152. doi:10.1089/acm.2010.0007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, H. R., Freeman, M. K., & Cates, M. E. (2008). Prazosin for treatment of nightmares related to posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 65(8), 716–722. doi:10.2146/ajhp070124
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thompson, C. E., Taylor, F. B., McFall, M. E., Barnes, R. F., & Raskind, M. A. (2008). Nonnightmare distressed awakenings in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: Response to prazosin. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21(4), 417–420. doi:10.1002/jts.v21:4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tillman, G. D., Kimbrell, T. A., Calley, C. S., Kraut, M. A., Freeman, T. W., & Hart, J. (2011). Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and threat memory: Selective reduction of combat threat memory P300 response after right frontal lobe stimulation. Journal of Neuropsychiatry Clinical Neuroscience, 23, 40–47. doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.23.1.40
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tokarev, D., & Jezová, D. (1997). Effect of central administration of the non-NMDA receptor antagonist DNQX on ACTH and corticosterone release before and during immobilization stress. Methods and Findings in Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, 19(5), 323–328.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaiva, G., Ducrocq, F., Jezequel, K., Averland, B., Lestavel, P., Brunet, A., & Marmar, C. R. (2003). Immediate treatment with propranolol decreases posttraumatic stress disorder two months after trauma. Biological Psychiatry, 54(9), 947–949. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(03)00412-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vedamurthachar, A. (2002). Biological effects of sudarshan kriya on alcoholics. National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India.
   Google Scholar
• Watts, B. V., Landon, B., Groft, A., & Young-Xu, Y. (2012). A sham controlled study of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for posttraumatic stress disorder. Brain Stimulation, 5(1), 38–43. doi:10.1016/j.brs.2011.02.002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westbrook, R. F., Iordanova, M., McNally, G., Richardson, R., & Harris, J. A. (2002). Reinstatement of fear to an extinguished conditioned stimulus: Two roles for context. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 28(1), 97–110. doi:10.1037/0097-7403.28.1.97
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolfsdorf, B. A., & Zlotnick, C. (2001). Affect management in group therapy for women with posttraumatic stress disorder and histories of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 57(2), 169–181. doi:10.1002/(ISSN)1097-4679
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zayfert, C., & Becker, C. B. (2000). Implementation of empirically supported treatments for PTSD: Obstacles and innovations. The Behavior Therapist, 23, 161–168.
   Google Scholar
• Zelena, D., Mergl, Z., & Makara, G. B. (2005). Glutamate agonists activate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis through hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus but not through vasopressinerg neurons. Brain Research, 1031(2), 185–193. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2004.10.034
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, L. M., Zhou, W. W., Ji, Y. J., Li, Y., Zhao, N., Chen, H. X., & Li, Y. F. (2014). Anxiolytic effects of ketamine in animal models of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychopharmacology, 232, 663–672. doi:10.1007/s00213-014-3697-9
   Google Scholar
• Zigman, D., & Blier, P. (2013). Urgent ketamine infusion rapidly eliminated suicidal ideation for a patient with major depressive disorder: A case report. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 33(2), 270–272. doi:10.1097/JCP.0b013e3182856865
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar