LGBTQ+ based discrimination is associated with ptsd symptoms, dissociation, emotion dysregulation, and attachment insecurity among LGBTQ+ adults who have experienced Trauma

References

• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Andersen, J. P., & Blosnich, J. (2013). Disparities in adverse childhood experiences among sexual minority and heterosexual adults: Results from a multi-state orobability-based sample. PLoS ONE, 8(1), e54691. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0054691
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bauer, G. R., Pyne, J., Francino, M. C., & Hammond, R. (2013). Suicidality among trans people in Ontario: Implications for social work and social justice. Service Social, 59, 35–62. doi:10.7202/1017478ar
   Google Scholar
• Breslow, A. S., Brewster, M. E., Velez, B. L., Wong, S., Geiger, E., Soderstrom, B., … Soderstrom, B. (2015). Resilience and collective action: Exploring buffers against minority stress for transgender individuals. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 2, 253–265. doi:10.1037/sgd0000117
   Google Scholar
• Brewster, M. E., & Moradi, B. (2010). Perceived experiences of anti-bisexual prejudice: Instrument development and evaluation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57, 451–468. doi:10.1037/a0021116
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briere, J. (2002). Multiscale dissociation inventory. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
   Google Scholar
• Cassidy, J., & Mohr, J. J. (2001). Unsolvable fear, trauma, and psychopathology: Theory, research, and clinical considerations related to disorganized attachment across the life span. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 8, 275–298. doi:10.1093/clipsy/8.3.275
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
   Google Scholar
• Colizzi, M., Costa, R., & Todarello, O. (2015). Dissociative symptoms in individuals with gender dysphoria: Is the elevated prevalence real? Psychiatry Research, 226, 173–180. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2014.12.045
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook, S. H., & Calebs, B. (2016). The integrated attachment and sexual minority stress model: Understanding the role of adult attachment in the health and well-being of sexual minority men. Behavioral Medicine, 42, 164–173. doi:10.1080/08964289.2016.1165173
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dank, M., Lachmann, P., Zweig, J. M., & Yahner, J. (2014). Dating violence experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43, 846–857. doi:10.1007/s10964-013-9975-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Díaz, R. M., Ayala, G., Bein, E., Henne, J., & Marin, B. V. (2001). The impact of homophobia, poverty, and racism on the mental health of gay and bisexual Latino men: Findings from 3 US cities. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 927–932. doi:10.2105/AJPH.91.6.927
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dillon, J. R. (2001). Internalized homophobia, attributions of blame, and psychological distress among lesbian, gay, and bisexual trauma victims. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: the Sciences and Engineering, 62(4–B), 2054.
   Google Scholar
• Dohrenwend, B. P., Turner, J. B., Turse, N. A., Adams, B. G., Koenen, K. C., & Marshall, R. (2006). The psychological risks of Vietnam for U.S. veterans: A revisit with new data and methods. Science, 313, 979–982. doi:10.1126/science.1128944
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Draijer, N., & Langeland, W. (1999). Childhood trauma and perceived parental dysfunction in the etiology of dissociative symptoms in psychiatric inpatients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 379–385. doi:10.1176/ajp.156.3.379
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dworkin, E. R., Gilmore, A. K., Bedard-Gilligan, M., Lehavot, K., Guttmannova, K., Kaysen, D., … Kaysen, D. (2018). Predicting PTSD severity from experiences of trauma and heterosexism in lesbian and bisexual women: A longitudinal study of cognitive mediators. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 65, 324–333. doi:10.1037/cou0000287
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gold, S., Feinstein, B. A., Skidmore, W. C., & Marx, B. P. (2011). Childhood physical abuse, internalized homophobia, and experiential avoidance among lesbians and gay men. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 3, 50–60. doi:10.1037/a0020487
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gold, S. D., Dickstein, B. D., Marx, B. P., & Lexington, J. M. (2009). Psychological outcomes among lesbian sexual assault survivors: An examination of the roles of internalized homophobia and experiential avoidance. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 54–66. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.01474.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the difficulties in emotion regulation scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26, 41–54. doi:10.1007/s10862-008-9102-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatzenbuehler, M. L., McLaughlin, K. A., Keyes, K. M., & Hasin, D. S. (2010). The impact of institutional discrimination on psychiatric disorders in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: A prospective study. American Journal of Public Health, 100, 452–459. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2009.168815
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hatzenbuehler, M. L., & Pachankis, J. E. (2016). Stigma and minority stress as social determinants of health among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth: Research evidence and clinical implications. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 63, 985–997. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2016.07.003
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keating, L., & Muller, R. T. (2018). LGBTQ+ people’s experiences of barriers and welcoming factors when accessing and attending psychotherapy for psychological trauma. Manuscript submitted for publication.
   Google Scholar
• Kessler, R. C., Chiu, W. T., Demler, O., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 617–627. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kobak, R. (1999). The emotional dynamics of disruptions in attachment relationships: Implications for theory, research, and clinical intervention. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 21–43). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Kozee, H. B., Tylka, T. L., & Bauerband, L. A. (2012). Measuring transgender individuals’ comfort with gender identity and appearance: Development and validation of the transgender congruence scale. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36, 179–196. doi:10.1177/0361684312442161
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kulka, R. A., & Schlenger, W. E. (1990). The national vietnam veterans readjustment study: Tables of findings and technical appendices. New York, NY: Brunner/Mazel.
   Google Scholar
• Lo, C., Walsh, A., Mikulincer, M., Gagliese, L., Zimmermann, C., & Rodin, G. (2009). Measuring attachment security in patients with advanced cancer: Psychometric properties of a modified and brief experiences in close relationships scale. Psycho-Oncology, 18, 490–499. doi:10.1002/pon.1417
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674–697. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.674
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nematy, A., & Oloomi, M. (2016). The comparison of attachment styles among Iranian lesbian, gay, and bisexual and heterosexual people. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 28, 369–378. doi:10.1080/10538720.2016.1225545
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nijenhuis, E. R. S., Van der Hart, O., & Kruger, K. (2002). The psychometric characteristics of the Traumatic Experiences Checklist (TEC): First findings among psychiatric outpatients. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 9, 200–210. doi:10.1002/cpp.332
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pachenkis, J. E., Rendina, H. J., Restar, A., Ventuneac, A., Grov, C., & Parsons, J. T. (2015). A minority tress- emotion regulation model of sexual compulsivity among highly sexually active gay and bisexual men. Health Psychology, 34, 829–840. doi:10.1037/hea0000180
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reisner, S. L., White Hughto, J. M., Gamarel, K. E., Keuroghlian, A. S., Mizock, L., & Pachankis, J. E. (2016). Discriminatory experiences associated with posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms among transgender adults. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 63(5), 509–519. doi:10.1037/cou0000143
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reisner, S. L., White, J. M., Bradford, J. B., & Mimiaga, M. J. (2014). Transgender health disparities: Comparing full cohort and nested matched-pair study designs in a community health center. LGBT Health, 1, 177–184. doi:10.1089/lgbt.2014.0009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richmond, K. A., Burnes, T., & Carroll, K. (2012). Lost in trans-lation: Interpreting systems of trauma for transgender clients. Traumatology, 18(1), 45–57. doi:10.1177/1534765610396726
   Google Scholar
• Root, M. P. (1992). Reconstructing the impact of trauma on personality. In L. S. Brown & M. Ballou (Eds.), Personality and psychopathology (pp. 229–265). New York, NY: Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Ryan, C., Hueber, D., Diaz, R. M., & Sanchez, J. (2009). Family rejection as a predictor of negative health outcomes in white and Latino lesbian, gay, and bisexual young adults. Pediatric, 123, 346–352. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-3524
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seligowski, A. V., Lee, D. J., Bardeen, J. R., & Orcutt, H. K. (2015). Emotion regulation and posttraumatic stress symptoms: A meta-analysis. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 44, 87–102. doi:10.1080/16506073.2014.980753
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shelton, K., & Delgado-Romero, E. A. (2011). Sexual orientation microaggressions: The experience of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and queer clients in psychotherapy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 58, 210–221. doi:10.1037/a0022251
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherry, A. (2007). Internalized homophobia and adult attachment: Implications for clinical practice. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 44, 219–225. doi:10.1037/0033-3204.44.2.219
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shipherd, J. C., Maguen, S., Christopher Skidmore, W., & Abramovitz, S. M. (2011). Potentially traumatic events in a transgender sample: Frequency and associated symptoms. Traumatology, 17(2), 56–67. doi:10.1177/1534765610395614
   Google Scholar
• Siegel, D. J. (1999). The developing mind: Toward a neurobiology of interpersonal experience. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Szymanski, D. M., & Balsam, K. F. (2010). Insidious trauma: Examining the relationship between heterosexism and lesbians’ PTSD symptoms. Traumatology, 17(2), 4–13. doi:10.1177/1534765609358464
   Google Scholar
• Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
   Google Scholar
• Vitelli, R., & Riccardi, E. (2011). Gender identity disorder and attachment theory: The influence of the patient’s internal working models on psychotherapeutic engagement and objective. A study undertaken using the adult attachment interview. International Journal of Transgenderism, 12, 241–253. doi:10.1080/15532739.2010.551485
   Google Scholar
• Wang, C. D. C., Schale, C. L., & Broz, K. K. (2010). Adult attachment; lesbian, gay, and bisexual identity; and sexual attitudes of nonheteosexual individuals. Journal of College Counseling, 13, 31–49. doi:10.1002/j.2161-1882.2010.tb00046.x
   Google Scholar
• Wathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Herman, D. S., Huska, J. A., & Keane, T. M. (1993). The PTSD Checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Society of Traumatic Stress Studies, San Antonio, TX.
   Google Scholar
• Wolfe, J., Kimerling, R., Brown, P. J., Chrestman, K. R., & Levin, K. (1996). The life stressor checklist-revised. In B. H. Stamm (Ed.), Instrumentation in stress, trauma, and adaptation (pp. 198–200). Northbrook, IL: Sidran Press.
   Google Scholar
• Zakalik, R. A., & Wei, M. (2006). Adult attachment, perceived discrimination based on sexual orientation, and depression in gay males: Examining the mediation and moderation effects. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53, 302–313. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.53.3.302
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar