2,089
Views
1
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Article

The Treatment of Depersonalization-Derealization Disorder: A Systematic Review

, BMedORCID Icon, , MD, PhDORCID Icon, , MScORCID Icon, , B.Sc, , MScORCID Icon, , BMedORCID Icon, , MDORCID Icon & , MD, PhDORCID Icon show all
Pages 6-29 | Received 18 Oct 2022, Accepted 26 Apr 2023, Published online: 11 Jul 2023

References

  • Aderibigbe, Y. A., Bloch, R. M., & Walker, W. R. (2001). Prevalence of depersonalization and derealization experiences in a rural population. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 36(2), 63–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s001270050291
  • Baldessarini, R. J., Innamorati, M., Erbuto, D., Serafini, G., Fiorillo, A., Amore, M., Girardi, P., & Pompili, M. (2017). Differential associations of affective temperaments and diagnosis of major affective disorders with suicidal behavior. Journal of Affective Disorders, 210, 19–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.12.003
  • Ballard, C. G., Mohan, R. N. C., & Handy, S. (1992). Chronic depersonalisation neurosis au Shorvon - a successful intervention [Article]. British Journal of Psychiatry, 160(JAN), 123–125. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.160.1.123
  • Bech, P. (1981). Rating scales for affective disorders: Their validity and consistency. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica.
  • Beneke, M., & Rasmus, W. (1992). “Clinical global impressions”(ECDEU): Some critical comments. Pharmacopsychiatry, 25(4), 171–176. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2007-1014401
  • Blanke, O., Mohr, C., Michel, C. M., Pascual Leone, A., Brugger, P., Seeck, M., Landis, T., & Thut, G. (2005). Linking out-of-body experience and self processing to mental own-body imagery at the temporoparietal junction. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 25(3), 550–557. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2612-04.2005
  • Blue, F. R. (1979). Use of directive therapy in the treatment of depersonalization neurosis [Article]. Psychological Reports, 45(3), 904–906. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1979.45.3.904
  • Bohus, M. J., Landwehrmeyer, G. B., Stiglmayr, C. E., Limberger, M. F., Bohme, R., & Schmahl, C. G. (1999). Naltrexone in the treatment of dissociative symptoms in patients with borderline personality disorder: An open-label trial. The Journal ofClinical Psychiatry, 60(9), 598–603. https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.v60n0906
  • Busner, J., & Targum, S. D. (2007). The clinical global impressions scale: Applying a research tool in clinical practice. Psychiatry (Edgmont), 4(7), 28–37. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20526405
  • Carlson, E. B., & Putnam, F. W. (1993). An update on the dissociative experiences scale. Dissociation: Progress in the Dissociative Disorders, 6(1), 16–27.
  • Chen, R., Classen, J., Gerloff, C., Celnik, P., Wassermann, E. M., Hallett, M., & Cohen, L. G. (1997). Depression of motor cortex excitability by low-frequency transcranial magnetic stimulation. Neurology, 48(5), 1398–1403. https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.48.5.1398
  • Clark, D. M. (1986). A cognitive approach to panic. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 24(4), 461–470. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(86)90011-2
  • Critchley, H. D., Melmed, R. N., Featherstone, E., Mathias, C. J., & Dolan, R. J. (2002). Volitional control of autonomic arousal: A functional magnetic resonance study. Neuroimage, 16(4), 909–919. https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2002.1147
  • Dollinger, S. J. (1983). A case report of dissociative neurosis (depersonalization disorder) in an adolescent treated with family therapy and behavior modification [Article]. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51(4), 479–484. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.51.4.479
  • Dursun, S. M., & Deakin, J. F. (2001). Augmenting antipsychotic treatment with lamotrigine or topiramate in patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia: A naturalistic case-series outcome study. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford, England), 15(4), 297–301. https://doi.org/10.1177/026988110101500409
  • Fichtner, C. G., Horevitz, R. P., & Braun, B. G. (1992). Fluoxetine in depersonalization disorder [Clinical Psychopharmacology 3340]. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 149(12), 1750–1751. (American Journal of Insanity). https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.149.12.1750b.
  • Foguet, Q., Alvárez, M. J., Castells, E., & Arrufat, F. (2011). Methylphenidate in depersonalization disorder: A case report [Article]. Actas españolas de psiquiatría, 39(1), 75–78. https://www.embase.com/search/results?subaction=viewrecord&id=L362248420&from=export
  • Forkmann, T., Scherer, A., Boecker, M., Pawelzik, M., Jostes, R., & Gauggel, S. (2011). The clinical global impression scale and the influence of patient or staff perspective on outcome. BMC Psychiatry, 11(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-11-83
  • Freeman, W., Watts, J. W., & Hunt, T. C. (1942). Psychosurgery: Intelligence, emotion and social behavior following prefrontal lobotomy for mental disorders. Charles C Thomas. https://doi.org/10.1037/11151-000
  • Frewen, P. A., & Lanius, R. A. (2006). Toward a psychobiology of posttraumatic self-dysregulation: Reexperiencing, hyperarousal, dissociation, and emotional numbing. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1071(1), 110–124. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1364.010
  • Glover, H. (1993). A preliminary trial of nalmefene for the treatment of emotional numbing in combat veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. The Israel Journal of Psychiatry and Related Sciences, 30(4), 255–263. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8163362
  • Guralnik, O., Giesbrecht, T., Knutelska, M., Sirroff, B., & Simeon, D. (2007). Cognitive functioning in depersonalization disorder. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 195(12), 983–988. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e31815c19cd
  • Guralnik, O., Schmeidler, J., & Simeon, D. (2000). Feeling unreal: Cognitive processes in depersonalization. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(1), 103–109. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.157.1.103
  • Gurevitch, J., Koricheva, J., Nakagawa, S., & Stewart, G. (2018). Meta-analysis and the science of research synthesis. Nature, 555(7695), 175–182. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature25753
  • Guttmann, E., & Maclay, W. S. (1936). Mescalin and depersonalization: Therapeutic experiments. The Journal of Neurology and Psychopathology, 16(63), 193–212. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.s1-16.63.193
  • Higgins, J. P., Thomas, J., Chandler, J., Cumpston, M., Li, T., Page, M. J., & Welch, V. A., Higgins, J. P. T., Thomas, J., Chandler, J., Cumpston, M., Li, T., Page, M. J., Welch, V. A. (2019). Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions. John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119536604
  • Hollander, H. E. (2009). ECEM (Eye Closure, Eye Movements): Application to depersonalization disorder [Article]. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 52(2), 95–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/00029157.2009.10401701
  • Hollander, E., Carrasco, J. L., Mullen, L. S., Trungold, S., DeCaria, C. M., & Towey, J. (1992). Left hemispheric activation in depersonalization disorder: A case report [Article]. Biological Psychiatry, 31(11), 1157–1162. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3223(92)90161-R
  • Hollander, E., Liebowitz, M. R., DeCaria, C., Fairbanks, J., Fallon, B., & Klein, D. F. (1990). Treatment of depersonalization with serotonin reuptake blockers [Article]. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 10(3), 200–203. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004714-199006000-00008
  • Humpston, C., Harrow, M., & Rosen, C. (2020). Behind the opaque curtain: A 20-year longitudinal study of dissociative and first-rank symptoms in schizophrenia-spectrum psychoses, other psychoses and non-psychotic disorders. Schizophrenia Research, 223, 319–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2020.07.019
  • Hunter, E. C. M., Baker, D., Phillips, M. L., Sierra, M., & David, A. S. (2005). Cognitive-behaviour therapy for depersonalisation disorder: An open study [Article]. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43(9), 1121–1130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.08.003
  • Hunter, E. C. M., Charlton, J., & David, A. S. (2017). Depersonalisation and derealisation: Assessment and management [Review]. BMJ (Online), 356. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j745
  • Hunter, E. C., Phillips, M. L., Chalder, T., Sierra, M., & David, A. S. (2003). Depersonalisation disorder: A cognitive-behavioural conceptualisation. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(12), 1451–1467. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(03)00066-4
  • Jay, E. L., Nestler, S., Sierra, M., McClelland, J., Kekic, M., & David, A. S. (2016). Ventrolateral prefrontal cortex repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of depersonalization disorder: A consecutive case series [Article]. Psychiatry Research, 240, 118–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2016.04.027
  • Jay, E. L., Sierra, M., Van Den Eynde, F., Rothwell, J. C., & David, A. S. (2014). Testing a neurobiological model of depersonalization disorder using repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation [Article]. Brain Stimulation, 7(2), 252–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brs.2013.12.002
  • Jiménez-Genchi, A. M. (2004). Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation improves depersonalization: A case report [Conference Paper]. CNS Spectrums, 9(5), 375–376. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1092852900009366
  • Karris, B. C., Capobianco, M., Wei, X., & Ross, L. (2017). Treatment of depersonalization disorder with repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation [Review]. Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 23(2), 141–144. https://doi.org/10.1097/PRA.0000000000000215
  • Kluger, B. M., & Triggs, W. J. (2007). Use of transcranial magnetic stimulation to influence behavior. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports, 7(6), 491–497. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11910-007-0076-5
  • Lee, W. E., Kwok, C. H., Hunter, E. C., Richards, M., & David, A. S. (2012). Prevalence and childhood antecedents of depersonalization syndrome in a UK birth cohort. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 47(2), 253–261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-010-0327-7
  • Lemche, E., Anilkumar, A., Giampietro, V. P., Brammer, M. J., Surguladze, S. A., Lawrence, N. S., Gasston, D., Chitnis, X., Williams, S. C., Sierra, M., Joraschky, P., & Phillips, M. L. (2008). Cerebral and autonomic responses to emotional facial expressions in depersonalisation disorder. The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science, 193(3), 222–228. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.107.044263
  • Locatelli, M., Bellodi, L., Perna, G., & Scarone, S. (1993). EEG power modifications in panic disorder during a temporolimbic activation task: Relationships with temporal lobe clinical symptomatology. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 5(4), 409–414. https://doi.org/10.1176/jnp.5.4.409
  • Mancini-Marie, A., Stip, E., Fahim, C., Mensour, B., Gendron, A., & Beauregard, M. (2004). Quetiapine: A potential treatment for emotional numbing in depersonalization (FMRI case report). The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology, 7, S280–S280. //WOS:000224663001460.
  • Mantovani, A., Simeon, D., Urban, N., Allart, A., Bulow, P. M., & Lisanby, S. H. (2010). Temporo-parietal junction stimulation in the treatment of depersonalization disorder [Conference Abstract]. Biological Psychiatry, 67(9), 45S. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.08.009
  • McKellar, A. (1978). Depersonalization in a 16-year-old boy. Southern Medical Journal, 71(12), 1580–1581. https://doi.org/10.1097/00007611-197812000-00041
  • Medford, N., Brierley, B., Brammer, M., Bullmore, E. T., David, A. S., & Phillips, M. L. (2006). Emotional memory in depersonalization disorder: A functional MRI study. Psychiatry Research, 148(2–3), 93–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2006.05.007
  • Michal, M., Adler, J., Wiltink, J., Reiner, I., Tschan, R., Wölfling, K., Weimert, S., Tuin, I., Subic-Wrana, C., Beutel, M. E., & Zwerenz, R. (2016). A case series of 223 patients with depersonalization-derealization syndrome [Article]. BMC Psychiatry, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-0908-4
  • Michal, M., Duven, E., Giralt, S., Dreier, M., Muller, K. W., Adler, J., Beutel, M. E., & Wolfling, K. (2015). Prevalence and correlates of depersonalization in students aged 12-18 years in Germany. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 50(6), 995–1003. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-014-0957-2
  • Michal, M., Wiltink, J., Till, Y., Wild, P. S., Munzel, T., Blankenberg, S., & Beutel, M. E. (2010). Type-D personality and depersonalization are associated with suicidal ideation in the German general population aged 35-74: Results from the Gutenberg heart study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 125(1–3), 227–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2010.02.108
  • Mishra, S., Das, N., Mohapatra, D., & Mishra, B. R. (2021). Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy in depersonalization-derealization disorder: a Case Report [Letter]. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176211040259
  • Moroz, B. T., Nuller Iu, L., Ustimova, I. N., & Andreev, B. V. (1990). Study of pain sensitivity based on the indicators of electro- odontometry in patients with depersonalization and depressive disorders. Zh Nevropatol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova, 90(10), 81–82. (Issledovanie bolevoi chuvstvitel’nosti po pokazateliam elektroodontometrii u bol’nykh s depersonalizatsiei i depressiei.). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1963007.
  • Munn, Z., Barker, T. H., Moola, S., Tufanaru, C., Stern, C., McArthur, A., Stephenson, M., & Aromataris, E. (2020). Methodological quality of case series studies: An introduction to the JBI critical appraisal tool. JBI Evidence Synthesis, 18(10), 2127–2133. https://doi.org/10.11124/JBISRIR-D-19-00099
  • Murad, M. H., Sultan, S., Haffar, S., & Bazerbachi, F. (2018). Methodological quality and synthesis of case series and case reports. BMJ Evidence-Based Medicine, 23(2), 60–63. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjebm-2017-110853
  • Normann, C., Hummel, B., Scharer, L. O., Horn, M., Grunze, H., & Walden, J. (2002). Lamotrigine as adjunct to paroxetine in acute depression: A placebo-controlled, double-blind study. The Journal ofClinical Psychiatry, 63(4), 337–344. https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.v63n0411
  • Noyes, R., Jr., Kuperman, S., & Olson St, B. (1987). Desipramine: A possible treatment for depersonalization disorder [Article]. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 32(9), 782–784. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674378703200911
  • Nuller, Y. L. (1982). Depersonalisation - symptoms, meaning, therapy [Article]. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 66(6), 451–458. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1982.tb04502.x
  • Nuller, Y. L., Morozova, M. G., Kushnir, O. N., & Hamper, N. (2001). Effect of naloxone therapy on depersonalization: A pilot study [Journal: Article]. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford, England), 15(2), 93‐95. https://doi.org/10.1177/026988110101500205
  • Ordas, D. M., & Ritchie, E. C. (1994). Treatment of depersonalization disorder and associated depression with electroconvulsive therapy [8] [Letter]. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 6(1), 67–69. https://doi.org/10.1176/jnp.6.1.67-a
  • Orrù, G., Bertelloni, D., Cesari, V., Conversano, C., & Gemignani, A. (2021). Targeting temporal parietal junction for assessing and treating disembodiment phenomena: A systematic review of TMS effect on depersonalization and derealization disorders (DPD) and body illusions. AIMS Neuroscience, 8(2), 181–194. https://doi.org/10.3934/Neuroscience.2021009
  • Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E. … Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71
  • Papeo, L., Longo, M. R., Feurra, M., & Haggard, P. (2010). The role of the right temporoparietal junction in intersensory conflict: Detection or resolution? Experimental Brain Research, 206(2), 129–139. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-010-2198-2
  • Phillips, M. L., Medford, N., Senior, C., Bullmore, E. T., Suckling, J., Brammer, M. J., Andrew, C., Sierra, M., Williams, S. C., & David, A. S. (2001). Depersonalization disorder: Thinking without feeling. Psychiatry Research, 108(3), 145–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0925-4927(01)00119-6
  • Porta, N., Bonet, C., & Cobo, E. (2007). Discordance between reported intention-to-treat and per protocol analyses. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 60(7), 663–669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2006.09.013
  • Preve, M., Mula, M., Cassano, G. B., & Pini, S. (2011). Venlafaxine in somatopsychic and autopsychic depersonalization [Letter]. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 35(8), 1808–1809. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2011.06.011
  • Rachid, F. (2017). Treatment of a patient with depersonalization disorder with low frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the right temporo-parietal junction in a private practice setting [Review]. Journal of Psychiatric Practice, 23(2), 145–147. https://doi.org/10.1097/PRA.0000000000000214
  • Ratliff, N. B., & Kerski, D. (1995). Depersonalization treated with fluoxetine [Clinical Psychopharmacology 3340]. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 152(11), 1689–1690. (American Journal of Insanity). https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.152.11.1689b.
  • Romanski, L. M. (2012). Integration of faces and vocalizations in ventral prefrontal cortex: Implications for the evolution of audiovisual speech. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109 Suppl 1(supplement_1), 10717–10724. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1204335109
  • Romanski, L. M., & Chafee, M. V. (2021). A view from the top: Prefrontal control of object recognition. Neuron, 109(1), 6–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2020.12.014
  • Rosagro-Escámez, F., Gutierrez-Fernández, N., Gómez-Merino, P., De La Vega, I., & Carrasco, J. L. (2011). The efficacy of lamotrigine in a resistant case of depersonalization disorder [Article]. Actas españolas de psiquiatría, 39(4), 263–266. https://www.embase.com/search/results?subaction=viewrecord&id=L362645328&from=export
  • Rosen, V. H. (1955). The reconstruction of a traumatic childhood event in a case of derealization [Article]. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 3(2), 211–221. https://doi.org/10.1177/000306515500300203
  • Rossini, P. M., & Rossi, S. (2007). Transcranial magnetic stimulation: Diagnostic, therapeutic, and research potential. Neurology, 68(7), 484–488. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000250268.13789.b2
  • Sachdev, P. (2002). Citalopram-clonazepam combination for primary depersonalization disorder: A case report [Clinical Psychopharmacology 3340]. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 36(3), 424–425. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1440-1614.2001.t01-1-01030.x
  • Salgado, A., Oliveira, L., Sierra-Siegert, M., & Salgado, J. V. (2012). Depersonalization and derealization syndrome: Report on a case study and pharmacological management [Letter]. Revista Brasileira De Psiquiatria, 34(4), 505–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rbp.2012.04.006
  • Sanacora, G., Mason, G. F., Rothman, D. L., & Krystal, J. H. (2002). Increased occipital cortex GABA concentrations in depressed patients after therapy with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 159(4), 663–665. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.4.663
  • Schilder, P. (1939). The treatment of depersonalization. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, 15(4), 258–266.
  • Schlax, J., Wiltink, J., Beutel, M. E., Munzel, T., Pfeiffer, N., Wild, P., Blettner, M., Ghaemi Kerahrodi, J., & Michal, M. (2020). Symptoms of depersonalization/derealization are independent risk factors for the development or persistence of psychological distress in the general population: Results from the Gutenberg health study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 273, 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.04.018
  • Sierk, A., Daniels, J. K., Manthey, A., Kok, J. G., Leemans, A., Gaebler, M., Lamke, J. P., Kruschwitz, J., & Walter, H. (2018). White matter network alterations in patients with depersonalization/derealization disorder. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience: JPN, 43(5), 347–357. https://doi.org/10.1503/jpn.170110
  • Sierra, M., Baker, D., Medford, N., & David, A. S. (2005). Unpacking the depersonalization syndrome: An exploratory factor analysis on the Cambridge depersonalization scale. Psychological Medicine, 35(10), 1523–1532. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291705005325
  • Sierra, M., Baker, D., Medford, N., Lawrence, E., Patel, M., Phillips, M. L., & David, A. S. (2006). Lamotrigine as an add-on treatment for depersonalization disorder: A retrospective study of 32 cases [Article]. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 29(5), 253–258. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.WNF.0000228368.17970.DA
  • Sierra, M., & Berrios, G. E. (1998). Depersonalization: Neurobiological perspectives. Biological Psychiatry, 44(9), 898–908. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0006-3223(98)00015-8
  • Sierra, M., & Berrios, G. E. (2000). The Cambridge Depersonalization Scale: A new instrument for the measurement of depersonalization. Psychiatry Research, 93(2), 153–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0165-1781(00)00100-1
  • Sierra, M., Phillips, M. L., Ivin, G., Krystal, J., & David, A. S. (2003). A placebo-controlled, cross-over trial of lamotrigine in depersonalization disorder [Article]. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 17(1), 103–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881103017001712
  • Sierra, M., Phillips, M. L., Lambert, M. V., Senior, C., David, A. S., & Krystal, J. H. (2001). Lamotrigine in the treatment of depersonalization disorder [Clinical Psychopharmacology 3340]. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62(10), 826–827. (Diseases of the Nervous System). https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v62n1012b.
  • Simeon, D. (2004). Depersonalisation disorder: A contemporary overview [Review]. CNS Drugs, 18(6), 343–354. https://doi.org/10.2165/00023210-200418060-00002
  • Simeon, D., Guralnik, O., Gross, S., Stein, D. J., Schmeidler, J., & Hollander, E. (1998). The detection and measurement of depersonalization disorder. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 186(9), 536–542. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-199809000-00004
  • Simeon, D., Guralnik, O., Schmeidler, J., & Knutelska, M. (2004). Fluoxetine therapy in depersonalisation disorder: Randomised controlled trial [Article]. British Journal of Psychiatry, 185(JULY), 31–36. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.185.1.31
  • Simeon, D., & Knutelska, M. (2005). An open trial of naltrexone in the treatment of depersonalization disorder [Article]. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 25(3), 267–270. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.jcp.0000162803.61700.4f
  • Simeon, D., Knutelska, M., Nelson, D., Guralnik, O., & Schmeidler, J. (2003). Examination of the pathological dissociation taxon in depersonalization disorder. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 191(11), 738–744. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nmd.0000095126.21206.3e
  • Slim, K., Nini, E., Forestier, D., Kwiatkowski, F., Panis, Y., & Chipponi, J. (2003). Methodological index for non-randomized studies (minors): Development and validation of a new instrument. ANZ Journal of Surgery, 73(9), 712–716. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1445-2197.2003.02748.x
  • Solano, P., Ustulin, M., Pizzorno, E., Vichi, M., Pompili, M., Serafini, G., & Amore, M. (2016). A Google-based approach for monitoring suicide risk. Psychiatry Research, 246, 581–586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2016.10.030
  • Somer, E., Amos-Williams, T., & Stein, D. J. (2013). Evidence-based treatment for Depersonalisation-derealisation Disorder (DPRD). BMC Psychology, 1(1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/2050-7283-1-20
  • Sookman, D., & Solyom, L. (1978). Severe depersonalization treated by behavior therapy [Article]. American Journal of Psychiatry, 135(12), 1543–1545. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.135.12.1543
  • Southam, E., Kirkby, D., Higgins, G. A., & Hagan, R. M. (1998). Lamotrigine inhibits monoamine uptake in vitro and modulates 5-hydroxytryptamine uptake in rats. European Journal of Pharmacology, 358(1), 19–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0014-2999(98)00580-9
  • Stein, M. B., & Uhde, T. W. (1989). Depersonalization disorder: Effects of caffeine and response to pharmacotherapy [Article]. Biological Psychiatry, 26(3), 315–320. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3223(89)90044-9
  • Ströhle, A., Kümpfel, T., & Sonntag, A. (2000). Paroxetine for depersonalization associated with multiple sclerosis [Letter]. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(1), 150. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.157.1.150
  • Tsakiris, M., Costantini, M., & Haggard, P. (2008). The role of the right temporo-parietal junction in maintaining a coherent sense of one’s body. Neuropsychologia, 46(12), 3014–3018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.06.004
  • Vucurovic, K., Caillies, S., & Kaladjian, A. (2020). Neural correlates of theory of mind and empathy in schizophrenia: An activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 120, 163–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.10.018
  • Warwick, H. M., & Salkovskis, P. M. (1990). Hypochondriasis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28(2), 105–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-7967(90)90023-c
  • Weber, S. R. (2020). Use of mixed amphetamine salts in a patient with depersonalization/derealization disorder [Article]. Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience, 17(1–3), 45–48. https://www.embase.com/search/results?subaction=viewrecord&id=L2004560016&from=export
  • Weber, J. V., Frizzell, W., Bullard, K. A., & Chien, J. (2018). Resolution of acute-onset depersonalization/derealization with clonazepam and inpatient hospitalization [Letter]. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 38(3), 272–273. https://doi.org/10.1097/JCP.0000000000000869

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.