410
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Article

THE IMPACT OF ETHNIC DISCRIMINATION AND INSTITUTIONAL BETRAYAL ON CANADIAN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS’ MENTAL HEALTH

, Ph.D, , M.A., , Ph.D & , Ph.D
Pages 185-201 | Received 16 Nov 2022, Accepted 12 Jun 2023, Published online: 11 Jul 2023

References

  • Alizai, H. (2021). Young Canadian Muslims: Islamophobia and higher education. Comparative and International Education, 49(2), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.5206/cieeci.v50i1.14131
  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (fifth edition). Author. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
  • Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.6.1173
  • Bhopal, R. (2004). Glossary of terms relating to ethnicity and race: For reflection and debate. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 58(6), 441–445. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2003.013466
  • Blevins, C. A., Weathers, F. W., Davis, M. T., Witte, T. K., & Domino, J. L. (2015). The posttraumatic stress disorder checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(6), 489–498. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22059
  • Boyraz, G., Horne, S. G., Armstrong, A. P., & Owens, A. C. (2015). Posttraumatic stress predicting depression and social support among college students: Moderating effects of race and gender. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, & Policy, 7(3), 259–268. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037967
  • Brooks Holliday, S., Dubowitz, T., Haas, A., Ghosh-Dastidar, B., DeSantis, A., & Troxel, W. M. (2020). The association between discrimination and PTSD in African Americans: Exploring the role of gender. Ethnicity & Health, 25(5), 717–731. https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2018.1444150
  • Canel-Çınarbaş, D., & Yohani, S. (2019). Indigenous Canadian university students’ experiences of microaggressions. International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 41(1), 41–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10447-018-9345-z
  • Cano, M. Á., Castro, Y., de Dios, M. A., Schwartz, S. J., Lorenzo-Blanco, E. I., Roncancio, A. M., Martinez, M. J., Sheehan, D. M., Auf, R., Piña-Watson, B., Huynh, Q.-L., & Zamboanga, B. L. (2016). Associations of ethnic discrimination with symptoms of anxiety and depression among Hispanic emerging adults: A moderated mediation model. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 29(6), 699–707. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2016.1157170
  • Carter, R. T., Kirkinis, K., & Johnson, V. E. (2020). Relationships between trauma symptoms and race-based traumatic stress. Traumatology, 26(1), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000217
  • Chandra, K. (2006). What is ethnic identity and does it matter? Annual Review of Political Science, 9(1), 397–424. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.062404.170715
  • Cheng, H.-L., & Mallinckrodt, B. (2015). Racial/Ethnic discrimination, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and alcohol problems in a longitudinal study of Hispanic/Latino college students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(1), 38–49. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000052
  • Clark, R., Coleman, A. P., & Novak, J. D. (2004). Brief report: Initial psychometric properties of the everyday discrimination scale in black adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 27(3), 363–368. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.09.004
  • Clarke, D. E., Colantonio, A., Rhodes, A. E., & Escobar, M. (2008). Ethnicity and mental health: Conceptualization, definition and operationalization of ethnicity from a Canadian context. Chronic Diseases in Canada, 28(4), 128–147. https://doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.28.4.03
  • Edman, J. L., Watson, S. B., & Patron, D. J. (2016). Trauma and psychological distress among ethnically diverse community college students. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 40(4), 335–342. https://doi.org/10.1080/10668926.2015.1065211
  • Freyd, J. J. (2018, January 11). When Sexual Assault Victims Speak Out, Their Institutions Often Betray Them. The Conversation. Retrieved from http://theconversation.com/when-sexual-assault-victims-speak-out-their-institutions-often-betray-them-87050
  • Gismondi, M. J. (2017, August 15). Quiet Canadian, Ugly American: Does Racism Differ North of the Border. Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/quiet-canadian-ugly-american-does-racism-differ-north-of-the-border-81388
  • Gómez, J. M. (2015). Microaggressions and the enduring mental health disparity: Black Americans at risk for institutional betrayal. Journal of Black Psychology, 41(2), 121–143. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798413514608
  • Ikram, U. Z., Snijder, M. B., de Wit, M. A. S., Schene, A. H., Stronks, K., & Kunst, A. E. (2016). Perceived ethnic discrimination and depressive symptoms: The buffering effects of ethnic identity, religion and ethnic social network. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 51(5), 679–688. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-016-1186-7
  • Jacob, G., Faber, S. C., Faber, N., Bartlett, A., Ouimet, A. J., & Williams, M. T. (2022). A systematic review of Black People coping with racism: Approaches, analysis, and empowerment. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(2), 392–415. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916221100509
  • Kirkinis, K., Pieterse, A. L., Martin, C., Agiliga, A., & Brownell, A. (2018). Racism, racial discrimination, and trauma: A systematic review of the social science literature. Ethnicity & Health, 26(3), 392–412. https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2018.1514453
  • Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (2001). The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16(9), 606–613. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x
  • Lowe, S. R., Tineo, P., Bonumwezi, J. L., & Bailey, E. J. (2019). The trauma of discrimination: Posttraumatic stress in Muslim American college students. Traumatology, 25(2), 115–123. https://doi.org/10.1037/trm0000197
  • Markus, H. R. (2008). Pride, prejudice, and ambivalence: Toward a unified theory of race and ethnicity. American Psychologist, 63(8), 651–670. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.63.8.651
  • Papps, E., & Ramsden, I. (1996). Cultural safety in nursing: The New Zealand experience. International Journal for Quality in Health Care: Journal of the International Society for Quality in Health Care, 8(5), 491–497. https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/8.5.491
  • Phinney, J. S. (1992). The multigroup ethnic identity measure: A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7(2), 156–176. https://doi.org/10.1177/074355489272003
  • Pieterse, A. L., Carter, R. T., Evans, S. A., & Walter, R. A. (2010). An exploratory examination of the associations among racial and ethnic discrimination, racial climate, and trauma-related symptoms in a college student population. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57(3), 255–263. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020040
  • Roberts, S. O., Bareket-Shavit, C., Dollins, F. A., Goldie, P. D., & Mortenson, E. (2020). Racial inequality in psychological research: Trends of the past and recommendations for the future. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 15(6), 1295–1309. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620927709
  • Roberts, R. E., Phinney, J. S., Masse, L. C., Chen, Y. R., Roberts, C. R., & Romero, A. (1999). The structure of ethnic identity of young adolescents from diverse ethnocultural groups. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 19(3), 301–322. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431699019003001
  • Sanchez, A. L., Comer, J. S., & LaRoche, M. (2022). Based CBT through culturally informed case conceptualization and treatment planning. Cognitive and Behavioural Practice, 29(4), 750–770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2021.04.003
  • Seaton, E. K., & Iida, M. (2019). Racial discrimination and racial identity: Daily moderation among Black youth. American Psychologist, 74(1), 117–127. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000367
  • Seaton, E. K., Neblett, E. W., Upton, R. D., Hammond, W. P., & Sellers, R. M. (2011). The moderating capacity of racial identity between perceived discrimination and psychological well-being over time among African American youth. Child Development, 82(6), 1850–1867. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01651.x
  • Seaton, E. K., Upton, R., Gilbert, A., & Volpe, V. (2014). A moderated mediation model: Racial discrimination, coping strategies, and racial identity among Black adolescents. Child Development, 85(3), 882–890. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12122
  • Sellers, R. M., Copeland-Linder, N., Martin, P. P., & Lewis, R. L. (2006). Ethnic/Racial identity matters: The relationship between racial discrimination and psychological functioning in African American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16(2), 187–216. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2006.00128.x
  • Sellers, R. M., Rowley, S. A. J., Chavous, T. M., Shelton, J. N., & Smith, M. A. (1997). Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity: A preliminary investigation of reliability and construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(4), 805–815. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.4.805
  • Sellers, R. M., Smith, M. A., Shelton, J. N., Rowley, S. A., & Chavous, T. M. (1998). Multidimensional model of racial identity: A reconceptualization of African American racial identity. Personality and Social Psychology Review: An Official Journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc, 2(1), 18–39. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0201_2
  • Smith, C. P., & Freyd, J. J. (2013). Dangerous safe havens: Institutional betrayal exacerbates sexual trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(1), 119–124. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21778
  • Smye, V., Josewski, V., & Kendall, E. (2010). Cultural safety: An overview. First Nations, Inuit and Métis Advisory Committee, Mental Health Commission of Canada, 1, 28.
  • Statistics Canada. (2003). Ethnic diversity survey: Portrait of a multicultural society, 2003001—ARCHIVED. (Catalogue no. 89-593-XIE). Minister of Industry. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/89-593-x/89-593-x2003001-eng.pdf?st=lTGMcCjM
  • Stevens, C., Liu, C. H., & Chen, J. A. (2018). Racial/Ethnic disparities in US college students’ experience: Discrimination as an impediment to academic performance. Journal of American College Health, 66(7), 665–673. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2018.1452745
  • Sue, D. W., Calle, C. Z., Mendez, N., Alsaidi, S., & Glaeser, E. (2020). Microintervention strategies: What you can do to disarm and dismantle individual and systemic racism and bias. Wiley.
  • Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A. M. B., Nadal, K. L., & Esquilin, M. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62(4), 271–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271
  • Townsend, T. G., Kaltman, S., Saleem, F., Coker-Appiah, D. S., & Green, B. L. (2020). Ethnic disparities in trauma-related mental illness: Is ethnic identity a buffer? Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 35(11–12), 2164–2188. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517701454
  • Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Keane, T. M., Palmieri, P. A., Marx, B. P., & Schnurr, P. P. (2013). The PTSD Checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5). www.ptsd.va.gov
  • Wei, M., Wang, K. T., Heppner, P. P., & Du, Y. (2012). Ethnic and mainstream social connectedness, perceived racial discrimination, and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(3), 486–493. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028000
  • Williams, D. R., Yu, Y., Jackson, J. S., & Anderson, N. B. (1997). Racial differences in physical and mental health: Socio-economic status, stress and discrimination. Journal of Health Psychology, 2(3), 335–351. https://doi.org/10.1177/135910539700200305
  • Williams, M., & Zare, M. (2022). A psychometric investigation of racial trauma symptoms using a semi-structured clinical interview with a trauma checklist (UnRESTS). Chronic Stress (Thousand Oaks, Calif), 6, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1177/24705470221145126
  • Yip, T. (2005). Sources of situational variation in ethnic identity and psychological well-being: A Palm Pilot study of Chinese American students. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(12), 1603–1616. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205277094
  • Zhang, W. Q. (2020). Validity and Reliability of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 for University Students (T). University of British Columbia. Retrieved from https://open.library.ubc.ca/collections/ubctheses/24/items/1.0394145

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.