Understanding the Impact of Trauma Exposure on Posttraumatic Stress Symptomatology: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach

REFERENCES

• Adams , R. E. , & Boscarino , J. A. ( 2006 ). Predictors of PTSD and delayed PTSD after disaster: The impact of exposure and psychosocial resources . Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease , 194 , 485 – 493 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agaibi , C. E. , & Wilson , J. P. ( 2005 ). Trauma, PTSD, and resilience . Trauma, Violence, & Abuse , 6 , 195 – 216 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ariga , M. , Uehara , T. , Takeuchi , K. , Ishige , Y. , Nakano , R. , & Mikuni , M. ( 2008 ). Trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder in delinquent female adolescents . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 49 , 79 – 87 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asparouhov , T. , & Muthén , B. ( 2006 ). Robust chi square difference testing with mean and variance adjusted test statistics . Matrix , 1 , 1 – 6 .
   Google Scholar
• Bentler , P. M. ( 1990 ). Comparative fit indexes in structural models . Psychological Bulletin , 107 , 238 – 246 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley , R. , Schwartz , A. C. , & Kaslow , N. J. (2005). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms among low-income, African American women with a history of intimate partner violence and suicidal behaviors: Self-esteem, social support, and religious coping. Journal of Traumatic Stress , 18, 685–696.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Browne , M. W. , & Cudeck , R. ( 1992 ). Alternative ways of assessing model fit . Sociological Methods & Research , 21 , 230 – 258 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell-Sills , L. , Cohan , S. L. , & Stein , M. B. ( 2006 ). Relationship of resilience to personality, coping, and psychiatric symptoms in young adults . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 48 , 527 – 531 .
   Google Scholar
• Chen , S. H. , Lin , Y. H. , Tseng , H. M. , & Wu , Y. C. ( 2002 ). Posttraumatic stress reactions in children and adolescents one year after the 1999 Taiwan Chi-Chi earthquake . Journal of the Chinese Institute of Engineers , 25 , 597 – 608 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , S. L. , Zheng , Q. Q. , Pan , J. N. , & Zheng , S. S. ( 2000 ). Preliminary development of a coping style scale for middle school students . Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology , 8 , 211 – 214 .
   Google Scholar
• Chen , W. , Wang , L. , Zhang , X. , & Shi , J. ( 2010 ). Posttraumatic stress disorder in adolescents of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake . Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology , 18 , 85 – 87 .
   Google Scholar
• Cheng , S. K. , & Lam , D. J. ( 1997 ). Relationships among life stress, problem solving, self-esteem, and dysphoria in Hong Kong adolescents: Test of a model . Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology , 16 , 343 – 355 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coffman , S. ( 1998 ). Children's reactions to disaster . Journal of Pediatric Nursing , 13 , 376 – 382 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Compas , B. E. , Malcarne , V. L. , & Fondacaro , K. M. ( 1988 ). Coping with stressful events in older children and young adolescents . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 56 , 405 – 411 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dumont , M. , & Provost , M. A. ( 1999 ). Resilience in adolescents: Protective role of social support, coping strategies, self-esteem, and social activities on experience of stress and depression . Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 28 , 343 – 363 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Earls , F. , Smith , E. , Reich , W. , & Jung , K. G. ( 1988 ). Investigating psychopathological consequences of a disaster in children: A pilot study incorporating a structured diagnostic interview . Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 27 , 90 – 95 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goenjian , A. K. , Molina , L. , Steinberg , A. M. , Fairbanks , L. A. , Alvarez , M. L. , & Goenjian , H. A. ( 2001 ). Posttraumatic stress and depressive reactions among Nicaraguan adolescents after Hurricane Mitch . American Journal of Psychiatry , 158 , 788 – 794 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holahan , C. J. , & Moos , R. H. ( 1991 ). Life stressors, personal and social resources, and depression: A 4-year structural model . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 100 , 31 – 38 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsu , C. C. , Chong , M. Y. , Yang , P. , & Yen , C. F. ( 2002 ). Posttraumatic stress disorder among adolescent earthquake victims in Taiwan . Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , 41 , 875 – 881 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kammeyer-Mueller , J. D. , Judge , T. A. , & Scott , B. A. ( 2009 ). The role of core self-evaluations in the coping process . Journal of Applied Psychology , 94 , 177 – 195 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kline , R. B. ( 2010 ). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling . New York , NY : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kreger , D. W. ( 1995 ). Self-esteem, stress, and depression among graduate students . Psychological Reports , 76 , 345 – 346 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreuger , L. , & Stretch , J. (2003). Identifying and helping long term child and adolescent disaster victims: Model and method. Journal of Social Service Research , 30, 93–108.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus , R. S. , & Folkman , S. ( 1984 ). Stress, appraisal, and coping . New York , NY : Springer .
   Google Scholar
• Lengua , L. , & Meltzoff , A. ( 2006 ). Pre-attack stress-load, appraisals, and coping in children's responses to the 9/11 terrorist attacks . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 47 , 1219 – 1227 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li , J. Z. ( 2004 ). The impact of psychological stress, coping styles and social support on middle school students’ mental health . Psychological Science , 27 , 980 – 982 .
   Google Scholar
• Li , Y. H. , & Zhang , J. X. ( 2004 ). The study between self-efficacy and coping styles of middle school students . Chinese Journal of Mental Health , 18 , 711 – 713 .
   Google Scholar
• Liber , J. M. , Faber , A. W. , Treffers , P. D. A. , & Van Loey , N. E. E. ( 2008 ). Coping style, personality and adolescent adjustment 10 years post-burn . Burns , 44 , 273 – 284 .
   Google Scholar
• MacKinnon , D. P. , Lockwood , C. M. , Hoffman , J. M. , West , S. G. , & Sheets , V. ( 2002 ). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects . Psychological Methods , 7 , 83 – 104 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marsh , H. W. , & Balla , J. R. ( 1994 ). Goodness-of-fit indices in confirmatory factor analysis: The effect of sample size and model parsimony . Quality and Quantity , 28 , 185 – 217 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mollica , R. F. , McInnes , K. , Poole , C. , & Tor , S. ( 1998 ). Dose-effect relationships of trauma to symptoms of depression and post-traumatic stress disorder among Cambodian survivors of mass violence . British Journal of Psychiatry , 173 , 482 – 488 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagao , K. , Okuyama , M. , Miyamoto , S. , & Haba , T. ( 1995 ). Treating early mental health and post-traumatic symptoms of children in the Hanshin-Awaji earthquake . Acta Paediatrica Japonica , 37 , 745 – 754 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Nemethy , K. ( 2010 ). Mental illness and resilience following the Haiti earthquake: An initial assessment. Unpublished master's thesis.
   Google Scholar
• Perrin , S. , Meiser-Stedman , R. , & Smith , P. ( 2005 ). The Children's Revised Impact of Event Scale (CRIES): Validity as a screening instrument for PTSD . Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy , 33 , 487 – 498 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pullmann , H. , & Allik , J. ( 2008 ). Relations of academic and general self-esteem to school achievement . Personality and Individual Differences , 45 , 559 – 564 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rector , N. A. , & Roger , D. ( 1997 ). The stress buffering effects of self-esteem . Personality and Individual Differences , 23 , 799 – 808 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg , M. ( 1989 ). Society and the adolescent self-image . New York , NY : Wesleyan University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Roussos , A. , Goenjian , A. K. , Steinberg , A. M. , Sotiropoulou , C. , Kakaki , M. , & Kabakos , C. ( 2005 ). Posttraumatic stress and depressive reactions among children and adolescents after the 1999 earthquake in Ano Liosia, Greece . American Journal of Psychiatry , 162 , 530 – 537 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , P. , Perrin , S. , Dyregrov , A. , & Yule , W. ( 2003 ). Principal components analysis of the Impact of Event Scale with children in war . Personality and Individual Differences , 34 , 315 – 322 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solomon , Z. , Mikulincer , M. , & Avitzur , E. (1988). Coping, locus of control, social support, and combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: A prospective study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 55, 279–285.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spirito , A. , Stark , L. J. , Grace , N. , & Stamoulis , D. ( 1991 ). Common problems and coping strategies reported in childhood and early adolescence . Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 20 , 531 – 544 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steiger , J. H. ( 1990 ). Structural model evaluation and modification: An interval estimation approach . Multivariate Behavioral Research , 25 , 173 – 180 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tucker , L. R. , & Lewis , C. ( 1973 ). A reliability coefficient for maximum likelihood factor analysis . Psychometrika , 38 , 1 – 10 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vernberg , E. M. , La Greca , A. M. , Silverman , W. K. , & Prinstein , M. J. ( 1996 ). Prediction of posttraumatic stress symptoms in children after Hurricane Andrew . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 105 , 237 – 248 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang , L. , Chen , W. , Zhang , X. , & Shi , J. ( 2011 ). Coping as a mediator of the relationship between personality and PTSD symptoms among surviving adolescents of the Wenchuan earthquake . Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology , 19 , 89 – 91 .
   Google Scholar
• Wang , X. D. ( 1993 ). Rating scales for mental health . Beijing , China : Chinese Mental Health Association .
   Google Scholar
• Wen , Z. , Chang , L. , Hau , L. , & Liu , H. ( 2004 ). Testing and application of mediating effects . Acta Psychologica Sinica , 36 , 614 – 620 .
   Google Scholar
• West , S. G. , Finch , J. F. , & Curran , P. J. ( 1995 ). Structural equation models with nonnormal variables: Problems and remedies . In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications . Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Wilbum , V. R. , & Smith , D. E. ( 2005 ). Stress, self-esteem, and suicidal ideation in late adolescents . Adolescence , 40 , 33 – 45 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Xinhua News Agency. (2008). Death toll from China's May earthquake remains unchanged 69,277. Retrieved November 12, 2008, from http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-09/25/content_10110269.htm
   Google Scholar
• Zhang , N. , Zhang , Y. Q. , Wu , K. K. , Zhu , Z. H. , & Dyregrov , A. ( 2011 ). Factor structure of the Children's Revised Impact of Event Scale among children and adolescents who survived the 2008 Sichuan earthquake in China . Scandinavian Journal of Psychology , 52 , 236 – 241 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao , J. , Shi , Y. , Hu , Z. , & Li , H. ( 2011 ). Sichuan earthquake and emergency relief care for children: Report from the firstly arrived pediatricians in the epicenter zone . Pediatric Emergency Care , 27 , 17 – 20 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar