Refuting the Myth of the “Violent Schizophrenic”: Assessing an Educational Intervention to Reduce Schizophrenia Stigmatization Using Self-Report and an Implicit Association Test

REFERENCES

• American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Fact sheet: Violence and mental illness. Washington, DC: Author.
   Google Scholar
• Angermeyer, M.C., & Matschinger, H. (2005). The stigma of mental illness in Germany: A trend analysis. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 51(3), 276–284. doi:10.1177/0020764005057390
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biddle, L., Gunnell, D., Sharp, D., & Donovan, J.L. (2004). Factors influencing help seeking in mentally distressed young adults: A cross-sectional survey. The British Journal of General Practice, 54(501), 248–253.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byrne, R., & Morrison, A.P. (2010). Young people at risk of psychosis: A user-led exploration of interpersonal relationships and communication of psychological difficulties. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 4(2), 162–168. doi:10.1111/j.1751-7893.2010.00171.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Charles, J.L. (2013). Mental health provider-based stigma: Understanding the experience of clients and families. Social Work in Mental Health, 11, 360–375.
   Google Scholar
• Corrigan, P.W. (2000). Mental health stigma as social attribution: Implications for research methods and attitude change. Clinical Psychology-Science and Practice, 7(1), 48–67.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corrigan, P.W., River, L.P., Lundin, R.K., Penn, D.L., Uphoff-Wasowski, K., Campion, J., … Kubiak, M.A. (2001). Three strategies for changing attributions about severe mental illness. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 27(2), 187–195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corrigan, P.W., & Watson, A.C. (2002). Understanding the impact of stigma on people with mental illness. World Psychiatry, 1(1), 16–20.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dickerson, F.B., Sommerville, J., Origoni, A.E., Ringel, N.B., & Parente, F. (2002). Experiences of stigma among outpatients with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 28(1), 143–155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dietrich, S., Matschinger, H., & Angermeyer, M.C. (2005). The relationship between biogenetic causal explanations and social distance toward people with mental disorders. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 52, 166–174. doi:10.1177/0020764006061246
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farina, A., & Feliner, R.D. (1973). Employment interviewer reactions to former mental patients. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 82(2), 268–272.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenley, J.R. (1984). Social factors, mental illness, and psychiatric care: Recent advances from a sociological perspective. Hospital & Community Psychiatry, 35(8), 813–820.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Greenwald, A.G., & Banaji, M.R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102(1), 4–27.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwald, A.G., McGhee, D.E., & Schwartz, J.L. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1464–1480.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwald, A.G., Poehlman, T.A., Uhlmann, E.L., & Banaji, M.R. (2009). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(1), 17–41. doi:10.1037/a0015575
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heider, J.D., & Skowronski, J.J. (2007). Improving the predictive validity of the Implicit Association Test. North American Journal of Psychology, 9, 53–76. doi:2007-05078-004
   Google Scholar
• Hiroeh, U., Appleby, L., Mortensen, P.B., & Dunn, G. (2001). Death by homicide, suicide, and other unnatural causes in people with mental illness: A population-based study. Lancet, 358(9299), 2110–2112. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(01)07216-6
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofmann, W., Gawronski, B., Gschwendner, T., Le, H., & Schmitt, M. (2005). A meta-analysis on the correlation between the Implicit Association Test and explicit self-report measures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1369–1385. doi:10.1177/0146167205275613
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holmquist, J. (2000). Associations between staff feelings toward patients and treatment outcome at psychiatric treatment homes. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 188, 366–371.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krammedine, Y.I., Demarco, D., Hassel, S., & Silverstone, P.H. (2013). A novel training program for police officers that improves interactions with mentally ill individuals and is cost-effective. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 4, 1–10. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00009
   Google Scholar
• Levey, S., Howells, K., & Cowden, E. (1995). Dangerousness, unpredictability and the fear of people with schizophrenia. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry, 6(1), 19–39.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lincoln, T.M., Arens, E., Berger, C., & Rief, W. (2008). Can antistigma campaigns be improved? A test of the impact of biogenetic vs psychosocial causal explanations on implicit and explicit attitudes to schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 34(5), 984–994. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbm131
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Link, B.G., Cullen, F.T., Frank, J., & Wozniak, J.F. (1987). The social rejection of former mental-patients: Understanding why labels matter. American Journal of Sociology, 92(6), 1461–1500.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Link, B.G., Struening, E.L., Rahav, M., Phelan, J.C., & Nuttbrock, L. (1997). On stigma and its consequences: Evidence from a longitudinal study of men with dual diagnoses of mental illness and substance abuse. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 38(2), 177–190.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matteo, E.K., & You, D. (2012). Reducing mental illness stigma in the classroom. Teaching of Psychology, 39(2), 121–124. doi:10.1177/0098628312437720
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Alliance on Mental Illness. (2014). NAMI in our own voice. Retrieved from www.nami.org
   Google Scholar
• National Association of Social Workers. (2008). Code of Ethics of the National Association of Social Workers. Washington, DC: NASW Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nosek, B.A., Greenwald, A.G., & Banaji, M.R. (2007). The Implicit Association Test at age 7: A methological and conceptual review. In J.A. Bargh (Ed.), Social psychology and the unconscious: The automaticy of higher mental processes. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Papish, A., Kassam, A., Modgill, G., Vaz, G., Zanussi, L., & Patten, S. (2013). Reducing the stigma of mental illness in undergraduate medical education: A randomized controlled trial. BMC Medical Education, 13, 141. doi:10.1186/1472-6920-13-141
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penn, D.L., Chamberlin, C., & Mueser, K.T. (2003). The effects of a documentary film about schizophrenia on psychiatric stigma. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 29(2), 383–391.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penn, D.L., Corrigan, P.W., Martin, J., Ihnen, G., Racenstein, J.M., Nelson, D., … Hope, D.A. (1999a). Social cognition and social skills in schizophrenia: the role of self-monitoring. The Journal of nervous and mental disease, 187(3), 188–190.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penn, D.L., Guynan, K., Daily, T., Spaulding, W.D., Garbin, C.P., & Sullivan, M. (1994). Dispelling the stigma of schizophrenia: What sort of information is best? Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20(3), 567–578.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Penn, D.L., Kommana, S., Mansfield, M., & Link, B.G. (1999b). Dispelling the stigma of schizophrenia: II. The impact of information on dangerousness. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 25(3), 437–446.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pinfold, V., Toulmin, H., Thornicroft, G., Huxley, P., Farmer, P., & Graham, T. (2003). Reducing psychiatric stigma and discrimination: Evaluation of educational interventions in UK secondary schools. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 182, 342–346.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richetin, J., Richardson, D.S., & Mason, G.D. (2010). Predictive validity of IAT aggressiveness in the context of provocation. Social Psychology, 41(1), 27–34. doi:10.1027/1864-9335/A000005
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulze, B., Richter-Werling, M., Matschinger, H., & Angermeyer, M.C. (2003). Crazy? So what! Effects of a school project on students’ attitudes towards people with schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 107(2), 142–150.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steadman, H.J., Mulvey, E.P., Monahan, J., Robbins, P.C., Appelbaum, P.S., Grisso, T., … Silver, E. (1998). Violence by people discharged from acute psychiatric inpatient facilities and by others in the same neighborhoods. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55(5), 393–401.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swanson, J.W., Holzer, C.E., Ganju, V.K., & Jono, R.T. (1990). Violence and psychiatric-disorder in the community: Evidence from the epidemiologic catchment-area surveys. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 41(7), 761–770.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Teachman, B.A., Wilson, J.G., & Komarovskaya, I. (2006). Implicit and explicit stigma of mental illness in diagnosed and healthy samples. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 25(1), 75–95.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Teplin, L.A., Abram, K.M., & Mcclelland, G.M. (1994). Does psychiatric-disorder predict violent crime among released jail detainees: A 6-year longitudinal-study. American Psychologist, 49(4), 335–342.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Theriot, M.T. (2013). Using popular media to reduce new college students’ mental illness stigma. Social Work in Mental Health, 11, 118–140. doi:10.1080/15332985.2012.745462
   Google Scholar
• Thornton, J.A., & Wahl, O.F. (1996). Impact of a newspaper article on attitudes toward mental illness. Journal of Community Psychology, 24(1), 17–25. doi:10.1002/(Sici)1520-6629(199601)24:1<17::Aid-Jcop2>3.0.Co;2-0
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Volavka, J., & Swanson, J. (2010). Violent behavior in mental illness: The role of substance abuse. Journal of the American Medical Association, 304(5), 563–564.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wahl, O.F., & Harman, C.R. (1989). Family views of stigma. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 15(1), 131–139.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker, I., & Read, J. (2002). The differential effectiveness of psychosocial and biogenetic causal explanations in reducing negative attitudes toward “mental illness.” Psychiatry, 65(4), 313–325.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White, M.J., & White, G.B. (2006). Implicit and explicit occupational gender stereotypes. Sex Roles, 55(3–4), 259–266. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9078-z
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolff, G., Pathare, S., Craig, T., & Leff, J. (1996). Community attitudes to mental illness. British Journal of Psychiatry, 168(2), 183–190.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yamaguchi, S., Mino, Y., & Uddin, S. (2011). Strategies and future attempts to reduce stigmatization and increase awareness of mental health problems among young people: A narrative review of educational interventions. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 65(5), 405–415. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1819.2011.02239.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar