The Visual Image and the Political Image: A Review of Visual Communication Research in the Field of Political Communication

References

• Abraham , L. and Appiah , O. 2006 . Framing news stories: The role of visual imagery in priming racial stereotypes . Howard Journal of Communications , 17 ( 3 ) : 183 – 203 .
   Google Scholar
• Adams , W. , & Schreibman , F. 1978 . Television network news: Issues in content research . Washington , DC : George Washington University .
   Google Scholar
• Ambady , N. and Rosenthal , R. 1993 . Half a minute: predicting teacher evaluations from thin slices of nonverbal behavior and physical attractiveness . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 64 : 431 – 441 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson , V.F. and Van Winkle , R. 1976 . In the arena: The care and feeding of American politics , New York : Harper & Row .
   Google Scholar
• Argyle , M. , Alkema , F. and Gilmour , R. 1972 . The communication of friendly and hostile attitudes by verbal and non-verbal signals . European Journal of Social Psychology , 1 : 385 – 400 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Argyle , M. , Salter , V. , Nicholson , H. , Williams , M. and Burgess , P. 1970 . The communication of inferior and superior attitudes by verbal and nonverbal signals . British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology , 9 : 222 – 231 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arpan , L.M. , Baker , K. , Youngwon , L. , Taejin , J. , Lorusso , L. and Smith , J. 2006 . News coverage of social protests and the effects of photographs on prior attitudes . Mass Communication & Society , 9 ( 1 ) : 1 – 20 .
   Google Scholar
• Bailenson , J.N. , Garland , P. , Iyengar , S. and Yee , N. 2006 . Transformed facial similarity as a political cue: A preliminary investigation . Political Psychology , 27 ( 3 ) : 373 – 385 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailenson , J.N. , Iyengar , S. , Yee , N. and Collins , N. 2008 . Facial similarity between voters and candidates causes social influence . Public Opinion Quarterly , 72 : 935 – 961 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Banducci , S.A. , Karp , J.A. , Thrasher , M. and Rallings , C. 2008 . Ballot photographs as cues in low-information elections . Political Psychology , 29 : 903 – 917 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baran , S.J. and Davis , D.K. 1995 . Mass communication theory: Foundations, ferment, and future , Belmont , CA : Wadsworth .
   Google Scholar
• Barnhurst , K.G. and Steele , C.A. 1997 . Image-bite news: The visual coverage of elections on U.S. television, 1968–1992 . Press/Politics , 2 ( 1 ) : 40 – 58 .
   Google Scholar
• Barrett , A.W. and Barrington , L.W. 2005a . Bias in newspaper photograph selection . Political Research Quarterly , 58 ( 4 ) : 609 – 618 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barrett , A.W. and Barrington , L.W. 2005b . Is a picture worth a thousand words?: Newspaper photographs and voter evaluations of political candidates . The Harvard International Journal of Press/Politics , 10 ( 4 ) : 98 – 113 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barry , A.M. 1997 . Visual intelligence: Perception, image, and manipulation in visual communication , Albany , NY : State University of New York Press .
   Google Scholar
• Barry , A.M. 2005 . “ Perception theory ” . In Handbook of visual communication , Edited by: Smith , K. , Moriarty , S. , Barbatsis , G. and Kenney , K. 45 – 62 . Mahwah , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Bartels , L.M. 1993 . Messages received: The political impact of media exposure . American Political Science Review , 87 : 267 – 285 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benjamin , D.J. and Shapiro , J.M. 2009 . Thin-slice forecasts of gubernatorial elections . The Review of Economics and Statistics , 91 : 523 – 536 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bennett , W.L. 2011 . News: The politics of illusion , 9th ed. , New York : Longman .
   Google Scholar
• Berkman , R. and Kitch , L.W. 1986 . Politics in the media age , New York : McGraw-Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Berry , C. and Brosius , H.B. 1991 . Multiple effects of visual format on TV news learning . Applied Cognitive Psychology , 5 : 519 – 528 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birdsell , D.S. and Groarke , L. 1996 . Toward a theory of visual argument . Argumentation and Advocacy , 33 : 1 – 10 .
   Google Scholar
• Birdsell , D.S. and Groarke , L. 2007 . Outlines of a theory of visual argument . Argumentation and Advocacy , 43 : 103 – 113 .
   Google Scholar
• Birdwhistell , R.L. 1970 . Kinesics and context , Philadelphia : University of Philadelphia Press .
   Google Scholar
• Blair , J.A. 1996 . The possibility and actuality of visual arguments . Argumentation and Advocacy , 33 : 23 – 39 .
   Google Scholar
• Blair , J.A. 2004 . “ The rhetoric of visual arguments ” . In Defining visual rhetorics , Edited by: Hill , C.A. and Helmers , M. 41 – 91 . Mahwah , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Brosius , H.B. 1991 . Format effects on comprehension of television news . Journalism Quarterly , 68 ( 3 ) : 396 – 401 .
   Google Scholar
• Brosius , H.B. 1993 . The effects of emotional pictures in television news . Communication Research , 20 ( 1 ) : 105 – 124 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brosius , H.B. , Donsback , W. and Birk , M. 1996 . How do text-picture relations affect the informational effectiveness of television newscasts . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 40 : 180 – 195 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bucy , E.P. 2000 . Emotional and evaluative consequences of inappropriate leader displays . Communication Research , 27 : 194 – 226 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bucy , E.P. 2003 . Emotion, presidential communication, and traumatic news: Processing the World Trade Center attacks . Press/Politics , 8 ( 4 ) : 76 – 96 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bucy , E.P. and Bradley , S.D. 2004 . Presidential expressions and viewer emotion: Counterempathic responses to televised leader displays . Social Science Information/Information sur les Sciences Sociales , 43 : 59 – 94 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bucy , E.P. and Grabe , M.E. 2007 . Taking television seriously: A sound and image bite analysis of presidential campaign coverage, 1992–2004 . Journal of Communication , 57 : 652 – 675 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bucy , E.P. and Newhagen , J.E. 1999 . The emotional appropriateness heuristic: Processing televised presidential reactions to the news . Journal of Communication , 49 ( 4 ) : 59 – 79 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bumiller , E. ( 2003 , May 16 ). Keepers of Bush image lift stagecraft to new heights . The New York Times .
   Google Scholar
• Burke , K. 1950 . A rhetoric of motives , 1st ed. , New York : Prentice-Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Cialdini , R.B. 1993 . Influence: The psychology of persuasion , Rev. ed. , New York : Morrow .
   Google Scholar
• Coleman , R. 2006 . The effects of visuals on ethical reasoning: What's a photograph worth to journalists making moral decisions? . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 83 ( 4 ) : 835 – 850 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coleman , R. and Banning , S. 2006 . Network TV news’ affective framing of the presidential candidates: Evidence for a second-level agenda-setting effect through visual framing . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 83 ( 2 ) : 313 – 328 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook , T.E. 1998 . Governing with the news: The news media as a political institution , 2nd ed. , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Damasio , A. 1999 . The feeling of what happens: Body and emotion in the making of consciousness , New York : Harcourt .
   Google Scholar
• Deaver , M.K. and Herskowitz , M. 1987 . Behind the scenes: in which the author talks about Ronald and Nancy Reagan. and himself , 1st ed. , New York : Morrow .
   Google Scholar
• Denton , R.E. and Hahn , D.F. 1986 . Presidential communication: Description and analysis , New York : Praeger .
   Google Scholar
• Denton , R.E. and Kuypers , J.A. 2008 . Politics and communication in America: Campaigns, media, and governing in the 21st Century , Long Grove , IL : Waveland Press .
   Google Scholar
• Detenber , B.H. and Simons , R.F. 1998 . Roll 'em: The effects of picture motion on emotional responses . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 42 ( 1 ) : 113 – 128 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dion , K. , Berscheid , E. and Walster , E. 1972 . What is beautiful is good . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 24 : 285 – 290 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Domke , D. , Perlmutter , D. and Spratt , M. 2002 . The primes of our times? An examination of the ‘power’ of visual images . Journalism , 3 ( 2 ) : 131 – 159 .
   Google Scholar
• Doremus , M.E. 1992 . The use of visuals to clarify ambiguous verbal information in a television news story . Journal of Visual Literacy , 12 ( 1 ) : 23 – 34 .
   Google Scholar
• Drew , D. and Grimes , T. 1987 . Audio-visual redundancy and TV news recall . Communication Research , 14 : 452 – 461 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards , J.L. 2004 . “ Echoes of Camelot: How images construct cultural memory through rhetorical framing ” . In Defining visual rhetorics , Edited by: Hill , C.A. and Helmers , M. 179 – 194 . Mahwah , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Edwardson , M. , Grooms , D. and Proudlove , S. 1981 . Television news information gain from interesting video vs. talking heads . Journal of Broadcasting , 25 ( 1 ) : 12 – 24 .
   Google Scholar
• Efran , M. and Patterson , E. 1974 . Voters vote beautiful: The effect of physical appearance on a national debate . Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science , 6 : 352 – 356 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekman , P. 1982 . Emotion in the human face , New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Endelman , M. 1976 . “ Political settings as symbolism ” . In Drama in life: The uses of communication in society , Edited by: Gordon , G.N. 348 – 359 . New York : Hastings House .
   Google Scholar
• Engell , A.D. , Haxby , J.V. and Todorov , A. 2007 . Implicit trustworthiness decisions: Automatic coding of face properties in the human amygdala . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 19 ( 9 ) : 1508 – 1519 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Englis , B.G. 1994 . “ The role of affect in political advertising: Voter emotional responses to the nonverbal behavior of politicians ” . In Attention, attitude, and affect in response to advertising , Edited by: Clark , E.M. , Brock , T.C. and Stewart , D.W. 223 – 247 . Hillsdale , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Erickson , K.V. 2000 . Presidential rhetoric's visual turn: Performance fragments and the politics of illusionism . Communication Monographs , 67 : 138 – 157 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fahmy , S. 2007 . “They took it down”: Exploring determinants of visual reporting in the toppling of the Saddam statue in national and international newspapers . Mass Communication & Society , 10 ( 2 ) : 143 – 170 .
   Google Scholar
• Fahmy , S. 2010 . Contrasting visual frames of our times: A framing-analysis of English- and Arabic-language press coverage of war and terrorism . International Communication Gazette , 72 ( 8 ) : 695 – 717 .
   Google Scholar
• Farnsworth , S.J. and Lichter , S.R. 2011 . The nightly news nightmare: Media coverage of U.S. Presidential Elections, 1988–2008 , Lanham , MA : Rowman & Littlefield .
   Google Scholar
• Findahl , O. 1981 . The effect of visual illustrations upon perception and retention of news programmes . Communications , 7 : 151 – 167 .
   Google Scholar
• Fisher , W.R. 1984 . Narration as a human communication paradigm: The case of public moral argument . Communication Monographs , 51 : 1 – 22 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fishman , J.M. and Marvin , C. 2003 . Portrayals of violence and group difference in newspaper photographs: Nationalism and media . Journal of Communication , 53 ( 1 ) : 32 – 44 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fleming , D. 1996 . Can pictures be arguments? . Argumentation and Advocacy , 33 : 11 – 22 .
   Google Scholar
• Foss , S.K. 2005 . “ Theory of visual rhetoric ” . In Handbook of visual communication: Theory, methods and media , Edited by: Smith , K. , Moriarty , S. , Barbatsis , G. and Kenney , K. 141 – 152 . Mahwah , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Gallagher , V. and Zagacki , K.S. 2005 . Visibility and rhetoric: The power of visual images in Norman Rockwell's depictions of civil rights . Quarterly Journal of Speech , 91 ( 2 ) : 175 – 200 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerbner , G. , Gross , L. , Morgan , M. and Signorielli , N. 1986 . “ Living with television: The dynamics of the cultivation process ” . In Perspectives on media effects , Edited by: Bryant , J. and Zillman , D. 17 – 40 . Hillsdale , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• German , K. 2008 . Visual images and presidential leadership: A case study of LBJ and his beagles . Journal of the Communication, Speech & Theatre Association of North Dakota , 21 : 21 – 32 .
   Google Scholar
• Gibson , R. and Zillmann , D. 2000 . Reading between the photographs: The influence of incidental pictorial information on issue perception . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 77 ( 2 ) : 355 – 366 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilliam , F.D. and Iyengar , S. 2000 . Prime suspects: The influence of local television news on the viewing public . American Journal of Political Science , 44 : 560 – 573 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Glassman , C. and Kenney , K. 1994 . Myths & presidential campaign photographs . Visual Communication Quarterly , 1 ( 4 ) : 4 – 7 .
   Google Scholar
• Grabe , M.E. 1996 . The SABC's coverage of the 1987 and 1989 elections: The matter of visual bias . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 40 : 1 – 27 .
   Google Scholar
• Grabe , M.E. and Bucy , E.P. 2009 . Image bite politics: News and the visual framing of elections , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Graber , D.A. 1981 . “ Political languages ” . In Handbook of political communication , Edited by: Nimmo , D. and Sanders , K.R. 195 – 223 . Beverly Hills , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Graber , D.A. 1987 . “ Kind words and harsh pictures: How television presents the candidates ” . In Elections in America , Edited by: Schlozman , K.L. 115 – 141 . Winchester , MA : Allen & Unwin .
   Google Scholar
• Graber , D.A. 1990 . Seeing is remembering: How visuals contribute to learning from television news . Journal of Communication , 40 ( 3 ) : 134 – 155 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graber , D.A. 1996a . Dissecting the audio-visual language of political television . Research in Micropolitics , 5 : 3 – 31 .
   Google Scholar
• Graber , D.A. 1996b . Say it with pictures . The Annals of the American Academy , 546 : 85 – 96 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graber , D.A. 2001 . Processing politics: Learning from television in the Internet age , Chicago : The University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Greene , E. and Fraser , S.C. 2002 . Observation distance and recognition of photographs of celebrities’ faces . Perceptual and Motor Skills , 95 : 637 – 651 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Griffin , M. 1992 . Looking at TV news: Strategies for research . Communication , 13 ( 2 ) : 121 – 141 .
   Google Scholar
• Griffin , M. 2001 . “ Camera as witness, image as sign: The study of visual communication in communication research ” . In Communication yearbook, 24 , Edited by: Gudykunst , W.B. 433 – 463 . Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Griffin , M. and Lee , J. 1995 . Picturing the Gulf War: Constructing an image of war in Time, Newsweek, and U.S. News and World Report . Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly , 72 ( 4 ) : 813 – 825 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grimes , T. 1991 . Mild auditory-visual dissonance in television news may exceed viewer attentional capacity . Human Communication Research , 18 : 268 – 298 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grimes , T. and Drechsel , R. 1996 . Word-picture juxtaposition, schemata, and defamation in television news . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 73 ( 1 ) : 169 – 180 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hacker , K.L. 1995 . Candidate images in presidential elections , Westport , CT : Praeger .
   Google Scholar
• Halley , P.S. 2002 . On the road with Hillary: A behind-the scenes look at the journey from Arkansas to the U.S. Senate , New York : Viking .
   Google Scholar
• Hallin , D.C. 1992 . Sound bite news: Television coverage of elections, 1968–1988 . Journal of Communication , 42 ( 2 ) : 5 – 24 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hariman , R. and Lucaites , J.L. 2007 . No caption needed: Iconic photographs, public culture, and liberal democracy , Chicago : University of Chicago Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hart , R.P. 1999 . Seducing America: How television charms the modern voter , Thousand Oaks , CA : SAGE Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Hellweg , S.A. and Phillips , S.L. 1981 . A verbal and visual analysis of the 1980 Houston Republican presidential primary debate . The Southern Speech Communication Journal , 47 : 23 – 38 .
   Google Scholar
• Hendrix , S. ( 2001 , September ). Planning your TV ads: The pre-production process . Campaigns & Elections , 44 – 46 .
   Google Scholar
• Hill , C.A. 2004 . “ The psychology of rhetorical images ” . In Defining visual rhetorics , Edited by: Hill , C.A. and Helmers , M. 25 – 40 . Mahwah , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Hoffman , K.S. 2011 . Visual persuasion in George W. Bush's presidency: Cowboy imagery in public discourse . Congress & the Presidency , 38 : 322 – 343 .
   Google Scholar
• Hollihan , T.A. 2001 . Uncivil wars: Political campaigns in a media age , Boston : Bedford/St. Martin's .
   Google Scholar
• Irby , K. 2004 . When seeing is no longer believing: Photographers and photo editors have the obligation of accuracy . Nieman Reports , 58 ( 1 ) : 42
   Google Scholar
• Jamieson , K.H. 1988 . Eloquence in an electronic age: The transformation of political speechmaking , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Jamieson , K.H. 1996 . Packaging the presidency , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Johns , R. and Shephard , M. 2011 . Facing the voters: The potential impact of ballot paper photographs in British Elections . Political Studies , 34 : 83 – 110 .
   Google Scholar
• Johnson , A. 1990 . “ Trends in political communication: A selective review of research in the 1980s ” . In New directions in political communication , Edited by: Swanson , D.L. and Nimmo , D. 329 – 362 . Newbury Park , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Johnson , D. 2007 . Martin Luther King Jr.'s 1963 Birmingham campaign as image event . Rhetoric & Public Affairs , 10 ( 1 ) : 1 – 26 .
   Google Scholar
• Kaid , L.L. 2004 . “ Political advertising ” . In Handbook of political communication research , Edited by: Kaid , L.L. 155 – 202 . Mahwah , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Kenner , R. (Producer/Director) , & Pearlstein , E. (Producer) . 2009 . Food, Inc . [Motion picture] . United States : Magnolia Pictures .
   Google Scholar
• Kenney , K. 1993 . Influences of politics and economics upon photographic content in Chinese newspapers . Asian Journal of Communication , 3 ( 2 ) : 54 – 74 .
   Google Scholar
• Kenney , K. and Scott , L.M. 2003 . “ A review of the visual rhetoric literature ” . In Persuasive imagery: A consumer response perspective , Edited by: Scott , L.M. and Batra , R. 17 – 56 . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Kepplinger , H.M. 1982 . Visual biases in television campaign coverage . Communication Research , 9 : 432 – 446 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kipper , A. 1986 . Television camera movement as a source of perceptual information . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 30 ( 3 ) : 295 – 307 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirouac , G. and Dore , F.Y. 1985 . Accuracy of the judgment of facial expression of emotions as a function of sex and level of education . Journal of Nonverbal Behavior , 9 : 3 – 7 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klijn , M.E. 2003 . Attention-getting and comprehension-raising attributes in visual in Dutch and American, public and private television news about violence . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 47 ( 1 ) : 124 – 144 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Krauss , R.M. , Apple , W. , Morency , N. , Wenzel , C. and Winton , W. 1981 . Verbal, vocal, and visible factors in judgments of another's affect . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 40 ( 2 ) : 312 – 320 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang , A. 1995 . Defining audio/video redundancy from a limited capacity information processing perspective . Communication Research , 22 : 86 – 115 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanzetta , J.T. , Sullivan , D.G. , Masters , R.D. and McHugo , G.J. 1985 . “ Emotional and cognitive responses to televised images of political leaders ” . In Mass media and political thought: An information-processing approach , Edited by: Kraus , S. and Perloff , R.M. 85 – 116 . Beverly Hills , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Lederman , J. 1992 . Battle lines: The American media and the intifada , New York : Henry Holt .
   Google Scholar
• Lee , T. , Ryan , W.E. , Wanta , W. and Chang , K. 2004 . Looking presidential: A comparison of newspaper photographs of candidates in the United States and Taiwan . Asian Journal of Communication , 14 ( 2 ) : 121 – 139 .
   Google Scholar
• Leslie , L.Z. 1986 . Newspaper photo coverage of censure of McCarthy . Journalism Quarterly , 63 ( 4 ) : 850 – 853 .
   Google Scholar
• Little , A.C. , Burriss , R.P. , Jones , B.C. and Roberts , S.C. 2007 . Facial appearance affects voting decisions . Evolution and Human Behavior , 28 : 18 – 27 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lombard , M. , & Ditton , T. 1997 . At the heart of it all: The concept of presence . Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication , 3 ( 2 ), http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol3/issue2/lombard.html
   Google Scholar
• Lowry , D.T. and Shidler , J.A. 1995 . The biters and the bitten: An analysis of network TV news bias in campaign '92 . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 69 : 341 – 361 .
   Google Scholar
• Lowry , D.T. and Shidler , J.A. 1998 . The sound bites, the biters, and the bitten: A two-campaign test of the anti-incumbent bias hypothesis in network TV news . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 75 : 719 – 729 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lucaites , J.L. 1997 . Visualizing “The People:” Individualism vs. collective action in “Let Us Now Praise Famous Men” . Quarterly Journal of Speech , 83 : 269 – 288 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luntz , F. 2007 . Words that work: It's not what you say, it's what people hear , New York : Hyperion .
   Google Scholar
• Mandell , L.M. and Shaw , D.L. 1973 . Judging people in the news—unconsciously: Effects of camera angle and bodily activity . Journal of Broadcasting , 17 ( 3 ) : 353 – 362 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masters , R.D. 1981 . Linking ethology and political science: Photographs, political attention, and presidential elections . New Directions for Methodology of Social and Behavioral Science , 7 : 61 – 80 .
   Google Scholar
• Masters , R.D. , Frey , S. and Bente , G. 1991 . Dominance and attention: Images of leaders in German, French, and American TV news . Polity , 25 : 373 – 394 .
   Google Scholar
• Masters , R.D. and Sullivan , D.G. 1993 . “ Nonverbal behavior and leadership: Emotion and cognition in political information processing ” . In Explorations in political psychology , Edited by: Iyengar , S. and McGuire , W.J. 150 – 182 . Durham , NC : Duke University Press .
   Google Scholar
• McCombs , M. 2004 . Setting the agenda: The mass media and public opinion , Cambridge , , UK : Polity Press .
   Google Scholar
• McGurk , H. and MacDonald , J. 1976 . Hearing lips and seeing voices . Nature , 264 : 746 – 748 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Medhurst , M.J. and Desousa , M.A. 1981 . Political cartoons as rhetorical form: A taxonomy of graphic discourse . Communication Monographs , 48 : 197 – 236 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mehrabian , A. 1972 . Nonverbal communication , Chicago : Aldine-Atherton .
   Google Scholar
• Messaris , P. 1994 . Visual literacy: Image, mind, reality , Boulder , CO : Westview .
   Google Scholar
• Messaris , P. 1997 . Visual persuasion: The role of images in advertising , Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Messaris , P. and Abraham , L. 2001 . “ The role of images in framing news stories ” . In Framing public life , Edited by: Reese , S.D. , Gandy , O.H. and Grant , A.E. 215 – 226 . Mahwah , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Meyrowitz , J. 1985 . No sense of place: The impact of electronic media on social behavior , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Moffit , M.A. 1999 . Campaign strategies and message design: A practitioner's guide from start to finish , Westport , CT : Praeger Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Moriarty , S.E. 1987 . A content analysis of visuals used in print media advertising . Journalism Quarterly , 64 ( 2 ) : 550 – 554 .
   Google Scholar
• Moriarty , S.E. and Garramone , G.M. 1986 . A study of newsmagazine photographs of the 1984 presidential campaign . Journalism Quarterly , 63 ( 4 ) : 728 – 734 .
   Google Scholar
• Moriarty , S.E. and Popovich , M.N. 1991 . Newsmagazine visuals and the 1988 presidential election . Journalism Quarterly , 68 ( 3 ) : 371 – 380 .
   Google Scholar
• Moriarty , S. and Shaw , D. 1995 . An antiseptic war: Were newsmagazine images of the Gulf War too soft? . Visual Communication Quarterly , 2 ( 2 ) : 4 – 8 .
   Google Scholar
• Morello , J.T. 1988 . Argument and visual structuring in the 1984 Mondale–Reagan Debates: The medium's influence on the perception of clash . Western Journal of Speech Communication , 52 : 277 – 290 .
   Google Scholar
• Morello , J.T. 1992 . The “look” and language of clash: Visual structuring of argument in the 1988 Bush–Dukakis Debates . The Southern Communication Journal , 57 : 205 – 218 .
   Google Scholar
• Mullen , B. , Futrell , D. , Stairs , D. , Tice , D. , Baumeister , R. , Dawson , K. , Riordan , C. , Radloff , C. , Goethals , G. , Kennedy , J. and Rosenfeld , P. 1986 . Newscasters’ facial expressions and voting behavior of viewers: Can a smile elect a president? . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 51 ( 2 ) : 291 – 295 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mullen , L.J. 1997 . The president's visual image from 1945 to 1974: An analysis of spatial configuration in news magazine photographs . Presidential Studies Quarterly , 27 : 819 – 834 .
   Google Scholar
• Nelson , J.S. and Boyton , G.R. 1997 . Video rhetorics: Televised advertising in American politics , Chicago : University of Illinois Press .
   Google Scholar
• Newhagen , J.E. 1998 . TV news images that induce anger, fear, and disgust: Effects on approach-avoidance and memory . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media , 42 : 265 – 276 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newhagen , J.E. 2002 . “ The role of meaning construction in the process of persuasion for viewers of television images ” . In The persuasion handbook: Developments in theory and practice , Edited by: Dillard , J.P. and Dillard , P.M. 729 – 748 . Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Newhagen , J.E. and Reeves , B. 1992 . This evening's bad news: Effects of compelling negative television news images on memory . Journal of Communication , 42 ( 2 ) : 25 – 41 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noller , P. 1985 . Video primacy—A further look . Journal of Nonverbal Behavior , 9 ( 1 ) : 28 – 47 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olivola , C.Y. and Todorov , A. 2010 . Elected in 100 milliseconds: Appearance-based trait inferences and voting . Journal of Nonverbal Behavior , 34 : 83 – 110 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paivio , A. 1979 . Imagery and verbal processes , Hillsdale , NK : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Parmelee , K.H. 2003 . Meet the candidate videos: Analyzing presidential primary campaign videocassettes , Westport , CT : Praeger Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Patterson , T.E. and McClure , R.D. 1976 . The unseeing eye: The myth of television power in national politics , New York : Putnam .
   Google Scholar
• Perlmutter , D.D. 1998 . Photojournalism and foreign policy , Westport , CT : Praeger .
   Google Scholar
• Perlmutter , D.D. 1999 . Visions of war: Picturing warfare from the Stone Age to the cyberage , New York : St. Martin's .
   Google Scholar
• Perlmutter , D.D. 2007 . Picturing China in the American press: The visual portrayal of Sino- American relations in Time magazine, 1949–1973 , Lanham , MD : Lexington .
   Google Scholar
• Perlmutter , D.D. and Wagner , G.L. 2004 . The anatomy of a photojournalistic icon: Marginalization of dissent in the selection and framing of ‘a death in Genoa’ . Visual Communication , 3 ( 1 ) : 91 – 108 .
   Google Scholar
• Peterson , T. 2005 . Testing visual signals in representative studies . International Journal of Public Opinion Research , 17 ( 4 ) : 456 – 472 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pew Research Center for the People & the Press ( 2010 , September 12 ). Americans spending more time following the news . Retrieved from http://people-press.org/reports/pdf/652.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Pfau , M. , Haigh , M. , Fifrick , A. , Holl , D. , Tedesco , A. , Cope , J. , Nunnally , D. , Schiess , A. , Preston , D. , Roszkowski , P. and Martin , M. 2006 . The effects of print news photographs on the casualties of war . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 83 : 150 – 168 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plutchik , R. 1980 . Emotion: A psychoevolutionary synthesis , New York : Harper & Row .
   Google Scholar
• Popovich , P.M. , Gehlauf , D.N. , Jolton , J.A. , Everton , W.J. , Godinho , R.M. , Mastrangelo , P. M. and Somers , J.M. 1996 . Physical attractiveness and sexual harassment: Does every picture tell a story or every story draw a picture? . Journal of Applied Psychology , 26 : 520 – 542 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posner , M.I. , Nissen , M.J. and Klein , R.M. 1976 . Visual dominance: An information- processing account of its origins and significance . Psychological Review , 83 : 157 – 171 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poutvaara , P. , Jordahl , H. and Berggren , N. 2009 . Faces of politicians: Babyfacedness predicts inferred competence but not electoral success . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 45 : 1132 – 1135 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riggle , E.D. , Ottati , V.C. , Wyer , R.S. , Kuklinski , J. and Schwarz , N. 1992 . Bases of political judgments: The role of stereotypic and nonstereotypic information . Political Behavior , 14 ( 1 ) : 67 – 87 .
   Google Scholar
• Rosenberg , S.W. , Bohan , L.B. , McCafferty , P. and Harris , K. 1986 . The image and the vote: The effect of candidate presentation on voter preference . American Journal of Political Science , 30 ( 2 ) : 108 – 127 .
   Google Scholar
• Rosenberg , S. and McCafferty , P. 1987 . The image and the vote: Manipulating voter's preferences . Public Opinion Quarterly , 51 : 31 – 47 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scheufele , D.A. , Kim , E. and Brossard , D. 2007 . My friend's enemy: How split-screen debate coverage influences evaluation of presidential debates . Communication Research , 34 ( 1 ) : 3 – 24 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schill , D. 2009 . Stagecraft and statecraft: Advance and media events in political communication , Lanham , MD : Lexington Books .
   Google Scholar
• Schmuhl , R. 1990 . Statecraft and stagecraft: American political life in the age of personality . Notre Dame , IN : University of Notre Dame Press .
   Google Scholar
• Schweiger , G. and Adami , M. 1999 . “ The nonverbal image of politicians and political parties ” . In Handbook of political marketing , Edited by: Newman , B.I. 347 – 364 . Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage Publications, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Shaw , D. ( 1992 , October 26 ). News often has to be seen before it is heard . Los Angeles Times , p. A16 .
   Google Scholar
• Shea , D.M. and Burton , M.J. 2001 . Campaign craft: The strategies, tactics, and art of political campaign management , Westport , CT : Praeger Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Shella , J. ( 2003 , May 15 ). Some audience members told not to wear ties for Bush speech . WISH-TV 8 . Retrieved from http://www.wishtv.com/global/story.asp?S=1278487&nav=0Ra6Fp41
   Google Scholar
• Sigelman , L. , Sigelman , C.K. and Fowler , C. 1987 . A bird of a different feather? An experimental investigation of physical attractiveness and the electability of female candidates . Social Psychology Quarterly , 50 ( 1 ) : 32 – 43 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spratt , M. , Peterson , A. and Lagos , T. 2005 . Of photographs and flags: Uses and perceptions of an iconic image before and after September 11, 2001 . Popular Communication , 3 ( 2 ) : 117 – 136 .
   Google Scholar
• Stevens , F. (Producer) , DuPre Pesmen , P. (Producer) , & Psihoyos , L. (Director) . 2009 . The cove [Motion picture] . United States : Lionsgate .
   Google Scholar
• Strachan , J.C. and Kendall , K.E. 2004 . “ Political candidates’ convention films: Finding the perfect image—An overview of political image making ” . In Defining visual rhetorics , Edited by: Hill , C.A. and Helmers , M. 135 – 154 . Mahwah , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Strother , R.D. 1999 . “ Preparing candidates for television ” . In The Manship School guide to political communication , Edited by: Perlmutter , D.D. 176 – 185 . Baton Rouge , LA : Louisiana State University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Sullivan , D.G. and Masters , R.D. 1988 . Happy warriors: Leaders’ facial displays, viewers’ emotions, and political support . American Journal of Political Science , 32 : 345 – 368 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Surawski , M.K. and Ossoff , E.P. 2006 . The effects of physical and vocal attractiveness on impression formation of politicians . Current Psychology , 25 ( 1 ) : 15 – 27 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiemans , R.K. 1978 . Television's portrayal of the 1976 presidential debates: An analysis of visual content . Communication Monographs , 45 : 362 – 370 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Todorov , A. , Mandisodza , A. , Goren , A. and Hall , C. 2005 . Inferences of competence from faces predict election outcomes . Science , 308 : 1623 – 1626 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valentino , N.A. , Hutchings , V.L. and White , I.K. 2002 . Cues that matter: How political ads prime racial attitudes during campaigns . American Political Science Review , 96 ( 1 ) : 75 – 90 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Valentino , N.A. , Traugott , M.W. and Hutchings , V.L. 2002 . Group cues and ideological constraint: A replication of political advertising effects studies in the lab and in the field . Political Communication , 19 : 29 – 48 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Waldman , P. and Devitt , J. 1998 . Newspaper photographs and the 1996 presidential election: The question of bias . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly , 75 : 302 – 311 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wanta , W. 1988 . The effects of dominant photographs: An agenda-setting experiment . Journalism Quarterly , 65 ( 1 ) : 107 – 111 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westen , D. 2007 . The political brain: The role of emotion in deciding the fate of the nation , New York : Public Affairs .
   Google Scholar
• White , T.H. 1961 . The making of the president 1960 , New York : Atheneum Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Willis , J. and Todorov , A. 2006 . First impressions: Making up your mind after 100 ms exposure to a face . Psychological Science , 17 : 592 – 598 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woo , J. 1994 . Journalism objectivity in news magazine photography . Visual Communication Quarterly , 1 ( 3 ) : 9 – 16 .
   Google Scholar
• Wray , J.H. 1999 . “ Through a glass darkly: Television and American electoral politics ” . In Handbook of political marketing , Edited by: Newman , B. I. 439 – 454 . Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage Publications .
   Google Scholar