Racial Differences in Discrimination, Coping Strategies, and Mental Health Among US Latinx Adolescents During COVID-19

References

• Adames, H. Y., Chavez-Dueñas, N. Y., & Jernigan, M. M. (2021). The fallacy of a raceless latinidad: Action guidelines for centering blackness in Latinx psychology. Journal of Latinx Psychology, 9(1), 26–44. https://doi.org/10.1037/lat0000179
   Google Scholar
• Allen, V. C., Lachance, C., Rios-Ellis, B., & Kaphingst, K. A. (2011). Issues in assessment of “race” among latinos: Implications for research and policy. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 33(4), 411–424. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986311422880
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Araújo, B. Y. (2015). Understanding the complexities of skin color, perceptions of race, and discrimination among Cubans, Dominicans, and Puerto Ricans. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 37(2), 243–256. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986314560850
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Araújo Dawson, B., & Quiros, L. (2014). The effects of racial socialization on the racial and ethnic identity development of latinas. Journal of Latina/O Psychology, 2(4), 200–213. https://doi.org/10.1037/lat0000024
   Google Scholar
• Basáñez, T., Warren, M. T., Crano, W. D., & Unger, J. B. (2014). Perceptions of intragroup rejection and coping strategies: Malleable factors affecting Hispanic adolescents’emotional and academic outcomes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 43(8), 1266–1280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-0062-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benner, A. D., & Mistry, R. S. (2020). Child development during the COVID-19 pandemic through a life course theory lens. Child Development Perspectives, 14(4), 236–243. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12387
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boggess, L. N., & Linnemann, T. W. (2011). At-risk youth. In W. J. Chambliss (Ed.), Juvenile crime and justice (pp. 29–44). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Borrell, L. N. (2005). Racial identity among Hispanics: Implications for health and well-being. American Journal of Public Health, 95(3), 379–381. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2004.058172
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bottiani, J. H., Bradshaw, C. P., & Mendelson, T. (2016). Inequality in Black and White high school students’ perceptions of school support: An examination of race in context. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 45(6), 1176–1191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0411-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calzada, E. J., Kim, Y., & O’Gara, J. L. (2019). Skin color as a predictor of mental health in young latinx children. Social Science & Medicine, 238, 112467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112467
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capielo Rosario, C., Faison, A., Winn, L., Caldera, K. ,& Lobos, J. (2021). No son complejos: An intersectional evaluation of AfroPuerto Rican health. Journal of Latinx Psychology, 9(1), 45–64. https://doi.org/10.1037/lat0000183
   Google Scholar
• Carlos Chavez, F. L., Sanchez, D., Capielo Rosario, C., Han, S., Cerezo, A., & Cadenas, G. A. (2023). COVID-19 economic and academic stress on Mexican American adolescents’ psychological distress: Parents as essential workers. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2023.2191283
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carter, E. R., & Murphy, M. C. (2015). Group-based differences in perceptions of racism: What counts, to whom, and why? Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9(6), 269–280. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12181
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castro, E. M., Wray-Lake, L., & Cohen, A. K. (2022). Critical consciousness and well-being in adolescents and young adults: A systematic review. Adolescent Research Review. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-022-00188-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2020). Introduction to COVID-19 racial and ethnic health disparities. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019ncov/community/health-equity/race-ethnicity.html
   Google Scholar
• Choi, Y., Harachi, T. W., Gillmore, M. R., & Catalano, R. F. (2006). Are multiracial adolescents at greater risk? Comparisons of rates, patterns, correlates of substance use and violence between monoracial and multiracial adolescents. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76(1), 86–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/0002-9432.76.1.86
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, C., Cadima, G., & Castellanos, D. (2020). Adolescent well-being and coping during COVID-19: A US-based survey. Journal of Pediatrics and Neonatology, 2, 15–20.
   Google Scholar
• Cook, S. W., & Heppner, P. P. (1997). A psychometric study of three coping measures. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 57(6), 906–923. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164497057006002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cordova, D., & Cervantes, R. C. (2010). Intergroup and within-group perceived discrimination among U.S.-born and foreign-born Latino youth. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 32(2), 259–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986310362371
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cortés-García, L., Hernández Ortiz, J., Asim, N., Sales, M., Villareal, R., Penner, F., & Sharp, C. (2022). COVID-19 conversations: A qualitative study of majority Hispanic/Latinx youth experiences during early stages of the pandemic. Child & Youth Care Forum, 51(4), 769–793. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-021-09653-x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cuevas, A. G., Dawson, B. A., & Williams, D. R. (2016). Race and skin color in Latino health: An analytic review. American Journal of Public Health, 106(12), 2131–2136. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2016.303452
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Diemer, M. A., Rapa, L. J., Park, C. J., & Perry, J. C. (2014). Development and validation of the critical consciousness scale. Youth & Society, 49(4), 461–483. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X14538289
   Google Scholar
• Donaldson, C., Stupplebeen, D. A., Fecho, C. L., Ta, T., Zhang, X., & Williams, R. J. (2022). Nicotine vaping for relaxation and coping: Race/ethnicity differences in social connectedness mechanisms. Addictive Behaviors, 132, 107365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107365
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edlynn, E. S., Miller, S. A., Gaylord‐Harden, N. K., & Richards, M. H. (2008). African American inner‐city youth exposed to violence: Coping skills as a moderator for anxiety. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 78(2), 249–258. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013948
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein, J. A., Bang, H., & Botvin, G. J. (2007). Which psychosocial factors moderate or directly affect substance use among inner-city adolescents? Addictive Behaviors, 32(4), 700–713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2006.06.011
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flores, E., Tschann, J. M., Dimas, J. M., Pasch, L. A., & de Groat, C. L. (2010). Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination, posttraumatic stress symptoms, and health risk behaviors among Mexican American adolescents. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57(3), 264. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020026
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forster, M., Grigsby, T., Rogers, C., Unger, J., Alvarado, S., Rainisch, B., & Areba, E. (2022). Perceived discrimination, coping styles, and internalizing symptoms among a community sample of Hispanic and Somali adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 70(3), 488–495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2021.10.012
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freire, P. (2000). Pedagogy of freedom: Ethics, democracy, and civic courage. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Gamble, K. (2015). Examining the prevalence of bullying among biracial children in comparison to single‐race children. Western Kentucky University.
   Google Scholar
• Garcia Coll, C., Jenkins, K., Lamberty, G., Wasik, B. H., Crnic, R., Garcia, H. V., & McAdoo, H. P. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. Child Development, 67(5), 1891–1914. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131600
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Godfrey, E. B., Santos, C. E., & Burson, E. (2019). For better or worse? System‐justifying beliefs in sixth‐grade predict trajectories of self‐esteem and behavior across early adolescence. Child Development, 90(1), 180–195. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12854
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gonzales, N. A., Gunnoe, M. L., Samaniego, R., & Jackson, K. (1995, June). Validation of a multicultural event schedule for adolescents [ Paper presentation]. Fifth Biennial Conference of the Society for Community Research and Action, Chicago, IL.
   Google Scholar
• Grills, C., Carlos Chavez, F. L., Crowder, C., De la Cruz Toledo He, E., Terry, D., & Villanueva, D. (2021, August 31). COVID-19 communities of color needs assessment. National Urban League. Executive Summary. https://nul.org/sites/default/files/202203/21.35.NUL_.Covid_.Layout.D9_v9.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Grills, C., Carlos Chavez, F. L., Saw, A., Walters, K. L., Burlew, K., Randolph Cunningham, S. M., Jackson‐Lowman, H., Jackson‐Lowman, H., & Rosario, C. C. (2022). Applying culturalist methodologies to discern COVID‐19‘s impact on communities of color. Journal of Community, 51(6), 2331–2354. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22802
   Google Scholar
• Grosfoguel, R. (2004). Race and ethnicity or racialized ethnicities?: Identities within global coloniality. Ethnicities, 4(3), 315–336. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468796804045237
   Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2018). Partial, conditional, and moderated moderated mediation: Quantification, inference, and interpretation. Communication Monographs, 85(1), 4–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2017.1352100
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helms, J. E. (1995). An update of Helms’s white and people of color racial identity models. In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (pp. 181–198). SAGE.
   Google Scholar
• Hochschild, J., & Weaver, V. (2007). The skin color paradox and the American racial order. Social Forces, 86(2), 643–670. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/86.2.643
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• IBM Corp. Released. (2019). IBM SPSS statistics for windows (Version 26.0).
   Google Scholar
• Jones, N., Marks, R., Ramirez, R., & Ríos-Vargas, M. (2021). 2020 U.S. Census. https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2021/08/improved-race-ethnicity-measures-reveal-united-states-population-much-more-multiracial.html
   Google Scholar
• Logan, J. R. (2003). How race counts for Hispanic Americans. Lewis Mumford Center, University at Albany.
   Google Scholar
• Marquez-Velarde, G., Jones, N. E., & Keith, V. M. (2020). Racial stratification in self-rated health among Black Mexicans and White Mexicans. SSM-Population Health, 10, 100509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2019.100509
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin-Romero, M. Y., Gonzalez, L. M., Stein, G. L., Alvarado, S., Kiang, L., & Coard, S. I. (2022). Coping (together) with hate: Strategies used by Mexican-origin families in response to racial–ethnic discrimination. Journal of Family Psychology, 36(1), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000760
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazzula, S. L., & Sanchez, D. (2021). The state of Afrolatinxs in Latinx psychological research: Finding from a content analysis from 2009 to 2020. Journal of Latinx Psychology, 9(1), 8–25. https://doi.org/10.1037/lat0000187
   Google Scholar
• McDermott, E. R., Umaña-Taylor, A. J., & Zeider, K. H. (2019). Profiles of coping with ethnic-racial discrimination and Latina/o adolescents’ adjustment. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 48(5), 908–923. https://doi.org/10.1007/x10964-018-0958-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramirez, A. G., Gallion, K. J., Aguilar, R., & Dembeck, E. S. (2017). Mental health and Latino kids: A research review. Salud America! website. https://saludamerica.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/FINAL-mental-health-research-review-9-12-17.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Ramos, B., Jaccard, J., & Guilamo-Ramos, V. (2003). Dual ethnicity and depressive symptoms: Implications of being Black and Latino in the United States. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 25(2), 147–173. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986303025002002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robles-Pina, R. A., DeFrance, E., Cox, D., & Woodward, A. (2005). Depression in urban Hispanic adolescents. International Journal on School Disaffection, 3(2), 8–14. https://doi.org/10.18546/IJSD.03.2.03
   Google Scholar
• Roche, K. M., Huebner, D. M., Lambert, S. F., & Little, T. D. (2022). COVID-19 stressors and Latinx adolescents’ mental health symptomology and school performance: A prospective study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 51(6), 1031–1047. https://doi.org/10.1007/s109664-022-01603-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rumpf, H. J., Meyer, C., Hapke, U., & John, U. (2001). Screening for mental health: Validity of the MHI-5 using DSM–IV axis I psychiatric disorders as gold standard. Psychiatry Research, 105(3), 243–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1781(01)00329-8
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanchez, D., Marquez, L., Hernandez, M., & Serrata, J. (2019). The invisible bruises: Theoretical and practical considerations for Black/Afro Latina, Afro-descendent survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Women and Therapy, 42(3-4), 406–429. https://doi.org/10.1080/02703149.2019.1622903
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanchez, D., Whittaker, T., Hamilton, E., & Zayas, L. (2015). Perceived discrimination and sexual precursor behaviors in Mexican American preadolescent girls: The role of psychological distress, sexual attitudes and marianismo beliefs. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 22(3), 395–407. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000066
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmitt, M. T., & Branscombe, N. R. (2002). The meaning and consequences of perceived discrimination in disadvantaged and privileged social groups. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 12, pp. 167–199). John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Seaton, E. K., Upton, R., Gilbert, A., & Volpe, V. (2014). A moderated mediation model: Racial discrimination, coping strategies, and racial identity among Black adolescents. Child Development, 85(3), 882–890. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12122
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sung Hong, J., Yan, Y., Gonzalez-Predes, A. A., Espelage, D. L., & Allen-Meares, P. (2021). Correlates of school bullying victimization among Black/White biracial adolescents: Are they similar to their monoracial Black and White peers? Psychology Schools, 58(3), 601–621. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22466
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tobin, D. L., Holroyd, K. A., Reynolds, R. V. C., & Wigal, J. K. (1989). The hierarchical factor structure of the coping strategies inventory. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 13(4), 343–361. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01173478
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vassillière, C. T., Holahan, C. J., & Holahan, C. K. (2016). Race, perceived discrimination, and emotion-focused coping. Journal of Community Psychology, 44(4), 524–530. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21776
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Viruell-Fuentes, E. A., Miranda, P. Y., & Abdulrahim, S. (2012). More than culture: Structural racism, intersectionality theory, and immigrant health. Social Science & Medicine, 75, 2099–2106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.12.037
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ware, J. E., Jr., & Sherbourne, C. D. (1992). The MOS 36-item short-form health survey (S.F.-36). I. Conceptual framework and item selection. Medical Care, 30(6), 473–483. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005650-199206000-00002
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, D. R., & Mohammed, S. A. (2009). Discrimination and racial disparities in health: Evidence and needed research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32(1), 20–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-008-9185-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zimmerman, M. A., Ramirez-Valles, J., & Maton, K. I. (1999). Resilience among urban African American male adolescents: A study of the protective effects of sociopolitical control on their mental health. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27(6), 733–751. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022205008237
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar