3,782
Views
12
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review Articles

Phosgene: toxicology, animal models, and medical countermeasures

ORCID Icon, & ORCID Icon
Pages 293-307 | Received 28 Oct 2020, Accepted 01 Feb 2021, Published online: 27 Feb 2021

References

  • Adachi M, Liu Y, Fujii K, Calderwood SK, Nakai A, Imai K, Shinomura Y. 2009. Oxidative stress impairs the heat stress response and delays unfolded protein recovery. PLoS One. 4(11):e7719
  • Aggarwal S, Jilling T, Doran S, Ahmad I, Eagen JE, Gu S, Gillespie M, Albert CJ, Ford D, Oh JY, et al. 2019. Phosgene inhalation causes hemolysis and acute lung injury. Toxicol Lett. 312:204–213.
  • Amoore JE, Hautala E. 1983. Odor as an aid to chemical safety: odor thresholds compared with threshold limit values and volatilities for 214 industrial chemicals in air and water dilution. J Appl Toxicol. 3(6):272–290.
  • Arroyo CM, Feliciano F, Kolb DL, Keeler JR, Millette SR, Stotts RR. 1993. Autoionization reaction of phosgene (OCCl2) studied by electron paramagnetic resonance/spin trapping techniques. J Biochem Toxicol. 8(2):107–110.
  • Baggett RK, Simpkins BK. 2018. Chapter 6, Critical Infrastructure Threats and Hazards. Homeland Security and Critical Infrastructure Protection. 2nd ed. Santa Barbara, Denver: Praeger, ABC-CLIO, LLC; p. 146–170.
  • Bast CB, Glass-Mattie DF. 2015. Chapter 25, Phosgene. In: Gupta RC, editor. Handbook of toxicology of chemical warfare agents. 2nd ed. New York, San Francisco, London: Academic Press, Inc.; p. 327–335.
  • Bast CB, Glass-Mattie DF. 2020. Chapter 23, Phosgene. In: Gupta RC, editor. Handbook of toxicology of chemical warfare agents. 3rd ed. New York, San Francisco, London: Academic Press; p. 341–351.
  • Beere HM, Wolf BB, Cain K, Mosser DD, Mahboubi A, Kuwana T, Tailor P, Morimoto RI, Cohen GM, Green DR. 2000. Heat-shock protein 70 inhibits apoptosis by preventing recruitment of procaspase-9 to the Apaf-1 apoptosome. Nat Cell Biol. 2(8):469–475.
  • Belkebir E, Rousselle C, Duboudin C, Bodin L, Bonvallot N. 2011. Haber's rule duration adjustments should not be used systematically for risk assessment in public health decision-making. Toxicol Lett. 204(2-3):148–155.
  • Borak J, Diller WF. 2001. Phosgene exposure: mechanisms of injury and treatment strategies. J Occup Environ Med. 43(2):110–119.
  • Boyland E, McDonald FF, Rumens MJ. 1946. The variation in the toxicity of phosgene for small animals with the duration of exposure. Br J Pharmacol Chemother. 1:81–89.
  • Cande C, Cohen I, Daugas E, Ravagnan L, Larochette N, Zamzami N, Kroemer G. 2002. Apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF): a novel caspase-independent death effector released from mitochondria. Biochimie. 84(2-3):215–222.
  • Chang CC, Chen SD, Lin TK, Chang WN, Liou CW, Chang AY, Chan SH, Chuang YC. 2014. Heat shock protein 70 protects against seizure-induced neuronal cell death in the hippocampus following experimental status epilepticus via inhibition of nuclear factor-κB activation-induced nitric oxide synthase II expression. Neurobiol Dis. 62:241–249.
  • Chemical Warfare Toxicology: Volume 2: Management of Poisoning 2018. Worek F, Jenner J, Thiermann H, editors. London: Royal Society of Chemistry.
  • Chen F-M, Wisner JR, Jr., Omachi H, Renner IG, Taylor CR, Epstein AL. 1990. Localization of monoclonal antibody TNT-1 in experimental kidney infarction of the mouse. Faseb J. 4(12):3033–3039.
  • Chen HL, Bai H, Xi MM, Liu R, Qin XJ, Liang X, Zhang W, Zhang XD, Li WL, Hai CX. 2013. Ethyl pyruvate protects rats from phosgene-induced pulmonary edema by inhibiting cyclooxygenase2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase expression. J Appl Toxicol. 33(1):71–77.
  • Cowan FM, Smith WJ, Moran TS, Paris MM, Williams AB, Sciuto AM. 2005. Sulfur Mustard-and Phosgene-Increased IL-8 in Human Small Airway Cell Cultures: Implications for Medical Countermeasures Against Inhalation Toxicity. Technical Report USAMRICD-TR-04-04. US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense. Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD.
  • Currie WD, Hatch GE, Frosolono MF. 1987. Pulmonary alterations in rats due to acute phosgene inhalation. Fundam Appl Toxicol. 8(1):107–114.
  • Currie WD, Pratt PC, Frosolono MF. 1985. Response of pulmonary energy metabolism to phosgene. Toxicol Ind Health. 1(2):17–27.
  • Davy J. 1812. On a gaseous compound of carbonic oxide and chlorine. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 102:144–151.
  • Diller WR. 1978. Medical phosgene problems and their possible solution. J Occup Med. 20(3):189–193.
  • Diller WF. 1985. Pathogenesis of phosgene poisoning. Toxicol Ind Health. 1(2):7–15.
  • Diller WF, Bruch J, Dehnen W. 1985. Pulmonary changes in the rat following low phosgene exposure. Arch Toxicol. 57(3):184–190.
  • Environmental Protection Agency 2002. Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals Volume 2. Washington, D.C: The National Academies Press. https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-09/documents/tsd7.pdf
  • Environmental Protection Agency. 2003. Phosgene: USEPA HPV Challenge Program Test Plan Submission. Washington DC. EPA/201-14578A.
  • Evert S. 2015. A brief history of chemical war. Distillations. Science History Institute. https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/a-brief-history-of-chemical-war.
  • Fargnoli J, Kunisada T, Fornace AJ, Jr., Schneider EL, Holbrook NJ. 1990. Decreased expression of heat shock protein 70 mRNA and protein after heat treatment in cells of aged rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 87(2):846–850.
  • Filipczak PT, Senft AP, Seagrave J, Weber W, Kuehl PJ, Fredenburgh LE, McDonald JD, Baron RM. 2015. NOS-2 inhibition in phosgene-induced acute lung injury. Toxicol Sci. 146(1):89–100.
  • Frosolono MF, Pawlowski R. 1977. Effect of phosgene on rat lungs after single high-level exposure. Arch Environ Health. 32(6):271–277.
  • Ghio AJ, Kennedy TP, Hatch GE, Tepper JS. 1991. Reduction of neutrophil influx diminishes lung injury and mortality following phosgene inhalation. J Appl Physiol (1985)). 71(2):657–665.
  • Glass D, McClanahan M, Koller L, Adeshina F. 2009. Provisional advisory levels (PALs) for phosgene (CG). Inhal Toxicol. 21 Suppl 3:73–94.
  • Grainge C, Brown R, Jugg BJ, Smith AJ, Mann TM, Jenner J, Rice P, Parkhouse DA. 2009. Early treatment with nebulised salbutamol worsens physiological measures and does not improve survival following phosgene induced acute lung injury. J R Army Med Corps. 155(2):105–109.
  • Grainge C, Jugg BJ, Smith AJ, Brown RF, Jenner J, Parkhouse DA, Rice P. 2010. Delayed low-dose supplemental oxygen improves survival following phosgene-induced acute lung injury. Inhal Toxicol. 22(7):552–560.
  • Grainge C, Rice P. 2010. Management of phosgene-induced acute lung injury. Clin Toxicol (Phila). 48(6):497–508.
  • Grainge C, Smith AJ, Jugg BJ, Fairhall SJ, Mann T, Perrott R, Jenner J, Millar T, Rice P. 2010. Furosemide in the treatment of phosgene induced acute lung injury. J R Army Med Corps. 156(4):245–250.
  • Guo YL, Kennedy TP, Michael JR, Sciuto AM, Ghio AJ, Adkinson NF, Jr., Gurtner GH. 1990. Mechanism of phosgene-induced lung toxicity: role of arachidonate mediators. J Appl Physiol (1985)). 69(5):1615–1622.
  • Gurtner GH. 1996. Development and testing of treatments for battlefield phosgene poisoning. Final report, 1 August 1994 – 31 January 1996 (No. AD-A-314742/8/XAB). New York Medical Coll., Valhalla, NY (United States) (https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a314742.pdf).
  • Haber F. 1924. Zur geschichte des gaskrieges (On the history of gas warfare). In Fünf Vorträge aus den Jahren 1920-1923 (Five Lectures from the Years 1920-1923). Springer, Berlin. pp p. 76–92.
  • Hansen JE, Sohn W, Kim C, Chang SS, Huang NC, Santos DG, Chan G, Weisbart RH, Nishimura RN. 2006. Antibody-mediated Hsp70 protein therapy. Brain Res. 1088(1):187–196.
  • Hansen JE, Tse CM, Chan G, Heinze ER, Nishimura RN, Weisbart RH. 2007. Intranuclear protein transduction through a nucleoside salvage pathway. J Biol Chem. 282(29):20790–20793.
  • He DK, Shao YR, Zhang L, Shen J, Zhong ZY, Wang J, Xu G. 2014. Adenovirus-delivered angiopoietin-1 suppresses NF-κB and p38 MAPK and attenuates inflammatory responses in phosgene-induced acute lung injury. Inhal Toxicol. 26(3):185–192.
  • Henderson Y, Haggard HW. 1943. Noxious gases. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Reinhold Publishing Corporation. p. 137–138.
  • Heydari AR, Wu B, Takahashi R, Strong R, Richardson A. 1993. Expression of heat shock protein 70 is altered by age and diet at the level of transcription. Mol Cell Biol. 13(5):2909–2918.
  • Hobson ST, Casillas RP, Richieri RA, Nishimura RN, Weisbart RH, Tuttle R, Reynolds GT, Parseghian MH. 2019. Development of an acute, short-term exposure model for phosgene. Toxicol Mech Methods. 29(8):604–615.
  • Holmes WW, Keyser BM, Paradiso DC, Ray R, Andres DK, Benton BJ, Rothwell CC, Hoard-Fruchey HM, Dillman JF, Sciuto AM, et al. 2016. Conceptual approaches for treatment of phosgene inhalation-induced lung injury. Toxicol Lett. 244:8–20.
  • Homeland S. 2003. Voluntary initiatives are under way at chemical facilities, but the extent of security preparedness is unknown. GAO-03-24R ed. Washington DC: United States Government Accounting Office.
  • Isenberg D. 2001. Guinea pigs. Bull at Sci. 57(3):72–73.
  • Jacobs MB. 1967. The analytical toxicology of industrial inorganic poisons. New York, NY: Interscience Publishers. p. 648–649.
  • Jin C, Zhou F, Zhang L, Shen J. 2020. Overexpression of heat shock protein 70 enhanced mesenchymal stem cell treatment efficacy in phosgene-induced acute lung injury. J Biochem Mol Toxicol. 34(8):e22515. doi:10.1002/jbt.22515.
  • Johnson J. 2011. Investigating a fatal phosgene leak. Chem Eng News Archive. 89(41):34–35.
  • Levada K, Guldiken N, Zhang X, Vella G, Mo FR, James LP, Haybaeck J, Kessler SM, Kiemer AK, Ott T, et al. 2018. Hsp72 protects against liver injury via attenuation of hepatocellular death, oxidative stress, and JNK signaling. J Hepatol. 68(5):996–1005.
  • Li W, Pauluhn J. 2014. Chapter 19, Mechanisms involved in the inhalation toxicity of phosgene. In: Salem H, Katz SA, editors. Inhalation toxicology. 3rd ed. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press; p. 459–483.
  • Li W, Pauluhn J. 2019. Phosgene-induced lung edema: Comparison of clinical criteria for increased extravascular lung water content with postmortem lung gravimetry and lavage-protein in rats and dogs. Toxicol Lett. 305:32–39.
  • Lu H, Chen C, Klaassen C. 2004. Tissue distribution of concentrative and equilibrative nucleoside transporters in male and female rats and mice. Drug Metab Dispos. 32(12):1455–1461.
  • Madamanchi NR, Li S, Patterson C, Runge MS. 2001. Reactive oxygen species regulate heat-shock protein 70 via the JAK/STAT pathway. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 21(3):321–326.
  • Madden MC, Friedrnan M, Keyes LL, Koren HS, Burleson GR. 1991. Effects of phosgene exposure on lung arachidonic acid metabolism. Inhal Toxicol. 3(1):73–90.
  • Miller FJ, Schlosser PM, Janszen DB. 2000. Haber's rule: a special case in a family of curves relating concentration and duration of exposure to a fixed level of response for a given endpoint. Toxicology. 149(1):21–34.
  • Ministry of Defense 1987. Medical manual of defence against chemical agents. London: Ministry of Defence D/Med (F&S) (2)/10/1/1.
  • Nash T, Pattle RE. 1971. The absorption of phosgene by aqueous solutions and its relation to toxicity. Ann Occup Hyg. 14(3):227–233.
  • National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 2015. Application of Modern Toxicology Approaches for Predicting Acute Toxicity for Chemical Defense. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/21775.
  • National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health 1976. Criteria for a Recommended Standard: Occupational Exposure to Phosgene. NIOSH-76-137.
  • Olivera DS, Hoard-Fruchey H, Sciuto AM. 2017. Evaluation of an in vitro screening model to assess phosgene inhalation injury. Toxicol Mech Methods. 27(1):45–51.
  • Pardue S, Groshan K, Raese JD, Morrison-Bogorad M. 1992. Hsp70 mRNA induction is reduced in neurons of aged rat hippocampus after thermal stress. Neurobiol Aging. 13(6):661–672.
  • Park GD, Mitchel JT. 2016. Working with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration to obtain approval of products under the Animal Rule. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1374(1):10–16.
  • Parseghian MH, Hobson ST, Richieri RA. 2016. Targeted heat shock protein 72 for pulmonary cytoprotection. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1374(1):78–85.
  • Parseghian MH, Luhrs KA. 2006. Beyond the walls of the nucleus: the role of histones in cellular signaling and innate immunity. Biochem Cell Biol. 84(4):589–604.
  • Pauluhn J. 2006. Acute nose-only exposure of rats to phosgene. Part I: concentration x time dependence of LC50s, nonlethal-threshold concentrations, and analysis of breathing patterns. Inhal Toxicol. 18(6):423–435.
  • Plahovinsak JL, Perry MR, Knostman KA, Segal R, Babin MC. 2015. Characterization of a nose-only inhaled phosgene acute lung injury mouse model. Inhal Toxicol. 27(14):832–840.
  • Public Health England 2016. Phosgene: Toxicological overview. 2014790.
  • Reinhardt C, Travis AS. 2000. Heinrich Caro and the creation of the modern chemical industry. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.
  • Rim KT. 2019. In vitro models for chemical toxicity: review of their applications and prospects. Toxicol Environ Health Sci. 11(2):94–103.
  • Rim KT. 2020. In silico prediction of toxicity and its applications for chemicals at work. Toxicol Environ Health Sci. 12(3):191–202.
  • Rozman KK, Doull J. 2000. Dose and time as variables of toxicity. Toxicology. 144(1-3):169–178.
  • Russell D, Blain PG, Rice P. 2006. Clinical management of casualties exposed to lung damaging agents: a critical review. Emerg Med J. 23(6):421–424.
  • Ryan TA, Seddon EA, Seddon KR, Ryan C. 1996. Chapter 1, History of phosgene. Phosgene and related carbonyl halides. 24th ed. Amsterdam: Elsevier; p. 3–72.
  • Sakagami M, Gumbleton M, 2006. Endogenous and exogenous IgG transfer in the airways: a prospective evaluation. Vol. 1In: Dalby RN, Byron PR, Peart J. editors. Richmond, Virginia: Virginia Commonwealth University; p. 57–64.
  • Sakagami M, Omidi Y, Campbell L, Kandalaft LE, Morris CJ, Barar J, Gumbleton M. 2006. Expression and transport functionality of FcRn within rat alveolar epithelium: a study in primary cell culture and in the isolated perfused lung. Pharm Res. 23(2):270–279.
  • Sandall TE. 1922. The later effects of gas poisoning. Lancet. 200(5173):857–859.
  • Sauer UG, Vogel S, Hess A, Kolle SN, Ma-Hock L, van Ravenzwaay B, Landsiedel R. 2013. In vivo-in vitro comparison of acute respiratory tract toxicity using human 3D airway epithelial models and human A549 and murine 3T3 monolayer cell systems. Toxicol in Vitro. 27(1):174–190.
  • Sciuto AM. 1998. Assessment of early acute lung injury in rodents exposed to phosgene. Arch Toxicol. 72(5):283–288.
  • Sciuto AM, Cascio MB, Moran TS, Forster JS. 2003. The fate of antioxidant enzymes in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid over 7 days in mice with acute lung injury. Inhal Toxicol. 15(7):675–685.
  • Sciuto AM, Clapp DL, Hess ZA, Moran TS. 2003. The temporal profile of cytokines in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in mice exposed to the industrial gas phosgene. Inhal Toxicol. 15(7):687–700.
  • Sciuto AM, Hurt HH. 2004. Therapeutic treatments of phosgene-induced lung injury. Inhal Toxicol. 16(8):565–580.
  • Sciuto AM, Phillips CS, Orzolek LD, Hege AI, Moran TS, Dillman JF, III. 2005. Genomic analysis of murine pulmonary tissue following carbonyl chloride inhalation. Chem Res Toxicol. 18(11):1654–1660.
  • Sciuto AM, Stotts RR, Hurt HH. 1996. Efficacy of ibuprofen and pentoxifylline in the treatment of phosgene-induced acute lung injury. J Appl Toxicol. 16(5):381–384.
  • Sciuto AM, Strickland PT, Kennedy TP, Guo YL, Gurtner GH. 1996. Intratracheal administration of DBcAMP attenuates edema formation in phosgene-induced acute lung injury. J Appl Physiol (1985)). 80(1):149–157.
  • Shen J, Gan Z, Zhao J, Zhang L, Xu G. 2014. Ulinastatin reduces pathogenesis of phosgene-induced acute lung injury in rats. Toxicol Ind Health. 30(9):785–793.
  • Smith A, Brown R, Jugg B, Platt J, Mann T, Masey C, Jenner J, Rice P. 2009. The effect of steroid treatment with inhaled budesonide or intravenous methylprednisolone on phosgene-induced acute lung injury in a porcine model. Mil Med. 174(12):1287–1294.
  • Southam DS, Dolovich M, O'Byrne PM, Inman MD. 2002. Distribution of intranasal instillations in mice: effects of volume, time, body position, and anesthesia. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 282(4):L833–L839.
  • Spertini F, Leimgruber A, Morel B, Khazaeli MB, Yamamoto K, Dayer JM, Weisbart RH, Lee ML. 1999. Idiotypic vaccination with a murine anti-dsDNA antibody: phase I study in patients with nonactive systemic lupus erythematosus with nephritis. J Rheumatol. 26(12):2602–2608.
  • Spiró Z, Arslan MA, Somogyvári M, Nguyen MT, Smolders A, Dancsó B, Németh N, Elek Z, Braeckman BP, Csermely P, et al. 2012. RNA interference links oxidative stress to the inhibition of heat stress adaptation. Antioxid Redox Signal. 17(6):890–901.
  • Summerhill EM, Hoyle GW, Jordt SE, Jugg BJ, Martin JG, Matalon S, Patterson SE, Prezant DJ, Sciuto AM, Svendsen ER, ATS Terrorism and Inhalational Disasters Section of the Environmental, Occupational, and Population Health Assembly, et al. 2017. An official American thoracic society workshop report: chemical inhalational disasters. Biology of lung injury, development of novel therapeutics, and medical preparedness. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 14(6):1060–1072.
  • Sweeney LM, Sommerville DR, Channel SR, Sharits BC, Gargas NM, Gut CP. Jr. 2015. Evaluating the validity and applicable domain of the toxic load model: impact of concentration vs. time profile on inhalation lethality of hydrogen cyanide. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 71(3):571–584.
  • Tanimoto T, Parseghian MH, Nakahara T, Kawai H, Narula N, Kim D, Nishimura R, Weisbart RH, Chan G, Richieri RA, et al. 2017. Cardioprotective effects of HSP72 administration on ischemia-reperfusion injury. J Am Coll Cardiol. 70(12):1479–1492.
  • ten Berge WF, Zwart A, Appelman LM. 1986. Concentration-time mortality response relationship of irritant and systemically acting vapours and gases. J Hazard Mater. 13(3):301–309.
  • Turner PV, Brabb T, Pekow C, Vasbinder MA. 2011. Administration of substances to laboratory animals: routes of administration and factors to consider. J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 50(5):600–613.
  • Villar J, Edelson JD, Post M, Mullen JB, Slutsky AS. 1993. Induction of heat stress proteins is associated with decreased mortality in an animal model of acute lung injury. Am Rev Respir Dis. 147(1):177–181.
  • Warren E. 1900. On the reaction of Daphnia magna (Straus) to certain changes in its environment. Q J Microsc Sci. 43:199–224.
  • Weinrich SL, Lawrence AE, Burr JK, Grotte JH, Laviolet LL. 2008. A comparative analysis of toxicity models. Alexandria, Virginia. IDA Paper P-4327.
  • Weisbart RH, Baldwin R, Huh B, Zack DJ, Nishimura R. 2000. Novel protein transfection of primary rat cortical neurons using an antibody that penetrates living cells. J Immunol. 164(11):6020–6026.
  • Weisbart RH, Chan G, Jordaan G, Noble PW, Liu Y, Glazer PM, Nishimura RN, Hansen JE. 2015. DNA-dependent targeting of cell nuclei by a lupus autoantibody. Sci Rep. 5:12022
  • Wijte D, Alblas MJ, Noort D, Langenberg JP, van Helden HP. 2011. Toxic effects following phosgene exposure of human epithelial lung cells in vitro using a CULTEX® system. Toxicol in Vitro. 25(8):2080–2087.
  • Zhan X, Ander BP, Liao IH, Hansen JE, Kim C, Clements D, Weisbart RH, Nishimura RN, Sharp FR. 2010. Recombinant Fv-Hsp70 protein mediates neuroprotection after focal cerebral ischemia in rats. Stroke. 41(3):538–543.
  • Zhang K, Zhao T, Huang X, Liu ZH, Xiong L, Li MM, Wu LY, Zhao YQ, Zhu LL, Fan M. 2009. Preinduction of HSP70 promotes hypoxic tolerance and facilitates acclimatization to acute hypobaric hypoxia in mouse brain. Cell Stress Chaperones. 14(4):407–415.
  • Zhang XD, Hai CX, Cai FL, Liang X, Liu R, Chen HL, Qin XJ, Feng AJ. 2008. Time course for expression of VEGF and its receptor and regulator levels of contraction and relaxation in increased vascular permeability of lung induced by phosgene. Inhal Toxicol. 20(9):805–812.
  • Zheng Z, Kim JY, Ma H, Lee JE, Yenari MA. 2008. Anti-inflammatory effects of the 70 kDa heat shock protein in experimental stroke. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 28(1):53–63.
  • Zwart A, Arts JHE, Klokman-Houweling JM, Schoen ED. 1990. Determination of Concentration-Time-Mortality Relationships to Replace LC50 Values. Inhal Toxicol. 2(2):105–117.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.