519
Views
6
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

The Unintended consequences of sentencing reforms: Using social chain theory to examine racial disparities in Female imprisonment

, M.S. & , Ph.D.
Pages 394-423 | Received 02 Feb 2017, Accepted 29 Aug 2017, Published online: 07 Nov 2017

References

  • Abramsky, S. (2007). American furies: Crime, punishment, and vengeance in the age of mass imprisonment. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
  • Albonetti, C. A. (1997). Sentencing under the federal sentencing guidelines: Effects of defendant characteristics, guilty pleas, and departures on sentence outcomes for drug offenses, 1991–1992. Law and Society Review, 31, 789–822. doi:10.2307/3053987.
  • Albonetti, C. A. (2002). The joint conditioning effect of defendant's gender and ethnicity on length of imprisonment under the federal sentencing guidelines for drug trafficking/manufacturing offenders. Journal of Gender, Race, & Justice, 6, 39–473.
  • Alexander, M. (2012). The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of colorblindness. New York, NY: The New Press.
  • Baker, J., & Lattimore, P. (1994). Forecasting demand using survival modeling: An application to US prisons. Australasian Journal of Information Systems, 2, 2–16. doi:10.3127/ajis.v2i1.411.
  • Beale, S. S. (2006). The news media's influence on criminal justice policy: How market-driven news promotes punitiveness. William & Mary Law Review, 48, 397–418.
  • Beckett, K. (1997). Making crime pay: Law and order in contemporary American politics. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Blalock, H. M. (1967). Toward a theory of minority-group relations. New York, NY: Wiley.
  • Blumstein, A. (1983). On the racial disproportionality of the United States prison population. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 73, 1259–1281. doi:10.2307/1143193.
  • Blumstein, A. (1984). Sentencing Reforms-Impacts and Implications. Judicature, 68, 128–139.
  • Bohm, R. M. (2006). “McJustice”: In the McDonaldization of criminal justice. Justice Quarterly, 23, 127–146. doi:10.1080/07418820600552576.
  • Brennan, P. K. (2006). Sentencing female misdemeanants: An examination of the direct and indirect effects of race/ethnicity. Justice Quarterly, 23, 60–91. doi:10.1080/07418820600552477.
  • Brown, G. (2010). The intersectionality of race, gender, and reentry: Challenges for African-American women. Issue Brief. Washington, DC: American Constitution Society.
  • Bureau of the Census (1983–2008). United States Census (Corresponding Year). Washington, DC.
  • Bureau of the Census (2008). Bureau of the Census, Historical Poverty Tables, 2004 (On Line). Washington, DC: Author.
  • Bureau of Justice Assistance. (1996). National Survey of Sate Sentencing Structures. Washington, DC: Author.
  • Bureau of Justice Statistics (1983–1983). Prisoners in State and Federal Institutions on December 31, 1983. Washington, DC: Author.
  • Bureau of Justice Statistics (1984–1998). Correctional Populations in the United States, 1984 (through 1998). Washington, DC: Author.
  • Bureau of Justice Statistics (1999–2008). Prisoners, 1999 (through 2008). Washington, DC: Author.
  • Bureau of Labor Statistics (1978). Department of Labor. Geographic Profile of Employment and Unemployment, 1978 (through 2008). Washington, DC: Author.
  • Burgess-Proctor, A. (2006). Intersections of race, class, gender, and crime future directions for feminist criminology. Feminist Criminology, 1, 27–47. doi:10.1177/1557085105282899.
  • Bush-Baskette, S. R. (2013). The War on Drugs as a war against Black women. In M. Chesney-Lind, & L. Pasko (Eds.), The female offender: Girls, women, and crime (pp. 175–184). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Carroll, L., & Cornell, C. P. (1985). Racial composition, sentencing reforms, and rates of incarceration, 1970–1980. Justice Quarterly, 2, 473–490. doi:10.1080/07418828500088691.
  • Carson, E. A. (2014). Prisoners in 2013. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
  • Chen, E. Y. (2014). In the furtherance of justice, injustice, or both? A multilevel analysis of courtroom context and the implementation of Three Strikes. Justice Quarterly, 31, 257–286. doi:10.1080/07418825.2011.649693.
  • Chesney-Lind, M., & Pasko, L. (2013). The female offender: Girls, women, and crime. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
  • Clarkson, C. M. V., & Morgan, R. (1995). The politics of sentencing reform. Oxford, NY: Clarendon Press; Oxford University Press.
  • Clear, T. R., & Frost, N. A. (2013). The punishment imperative: The rise and failure of mass incarceration in America. New York, NY: New York University Press.
  • Crawford, C. (2000). Gender, race, and habitual offender sentencing. Criminology, 38, 263–280. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2000.tb00890.x.
  • Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43, 1241–1299. doi:10.2307/1229039.
  • Crenshaw, K. (2010). From private violence to mass incarceration: Thinking intersectionality about women, race, and social control. UCLA Law Review, 59, 1418–1472.
  • Crow, M., & Gertz, M. (2008). Sentencing policy and disparity: Guidelines and the influence of legal and democratic subcultures. Journal of Criminal Justice, 36, 362–371. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2008.06.004.
  • Crow, M., & Johnson, K. (2008). Race, ethnicity, and habitual-offender sentencing: A multilevel analysis of individual and contextual threat. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 19, 63–83. doi:10.1177/0887403407308476.
  • Crow, M. S., & Kunselman, J. C. (2009). Sentencing female drug offenders: Reexamining racial and ethnic disparities. Women & Criminal Justice, 19, 191–216. doi:10.1080/08974450903001511.
  • Daly, K. (1989). Neither conflict nor labeling nor paternalism will suffice: Intersections of race, ethnicity, gender, and family in criminal court decisions. Crime & Delinquency, 35, 136–168. doi:10.1177/0011128789035001007.
  • Daly, K., & Tonry, M. (1997). Gender, race, and sentencing. Crime and Justice, 22, 201–252. doi:10.1086/449263.
  • Davis, K. (2008). Intersectionality as buzzword a sociology of science perspective on what makes a feminist theory successful. Feminist theory, 9, 67–85. doi:10.1177/1464700108086364.
  • Department of Justice. (2013). Office of Justice Programs. Bureau of Justice Statistics. National Corrections Reporting Program, 2009. Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR) [distributor].
  • Dubin, M. J. (2007). Party affiliations in the state legislatures: A year by year summary, 1796–2006. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland.
  • Engen, R. L. (2009). Assessing determinate and presumptive sentencing—Making research relevant. Criminology & Public Policy, 8, 323–336. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2009.00559.x.
  • Engen, R. L., & Steen, S. (2000). The power to punish: Discretion and sentencing reform in the war on drugs. American Journal of Sociology, 105, 1357–1395. doi:10.1086/210433.
  • Federal Bureau of Investigation. (1983–2008). Uniform crime reports: Crime in the United States. Washington, DC: Federal Bureau of Investigation.
  • Feinman, C. (1994). Women in the criminal justice system. Westport, CT: Praeger.
  • Fine, G. (2006). The chaining of social problems: Solutions and unintended consequences in the age of betrayal. Social Problems, 53, 3–17. doi:10.1525/sp.2006.53.1.3.
  • Finkel, S. E. (1995). Causal analysis with panel data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
  • Frank, M. W. (2009). Inequality and growth in the United States: Evidence from a new state-level panel of income inequality. Economic Inequality, 47, 55–68.
  • Frase, R. S. (2005a). Punishment purposes. Stanford Law Review, 58, 67–83.
  • Frase, R. S. (2005b). State sentencing guidelines: Diversity, consensus, and unresolved policy issues. Columbia Law Review, 105, 1190–1232.
  • Freiburger, T. L., & Hilinski, C. M. (2013). An examination of the interactions of race and gender on sentencing decisions using a trichotomous dependent variable. Crime & Delinquency, 59, 59–86. doi:10.1177/0011128708330178.
  • Glassner, B. (1999). The culture of fear: Why Americans are afraid of the wrong things (1st ed.). New York, NY: Basic Books.
  • Gottschalk, M. (2006). The prison and the gallows: The politics of mass incarceration in America. New York, NY: Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Gottschalk, M. (2009). Money and mass incarceration: The bad, the mad, and penal reform. Criminology and Public Policy, 8, 97–109. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2009.00547.x.
  • Halaby, C. (2004). Panel models in sociological research: Theory into practice. Annual Review of Sociology, 30, 507–544. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.30.012703.110629.
  • Hannah-Moffatt, K., & Maurutto, P. (2010). Re-contextualizing pre-sentence reports risk and race. Punishment & Society, 12, 262–286. doi:10.1177/1462474510369442.
  • Harcourt, B. E. (2009). Illusion of order: The false promise of broken windows policing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  • Harmon, M. G. (2011). The imprisonment race: Unintended consequences of ‘‘fixed’’ sentencing on people of color over time. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 9, 79–109. doi:10.1080/15377938.2011.566811.
  • Harmon, M. G. (2013). “Fixed” sentencing: The effect on imprisonment rates over time. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 29, 369–397. doi:10.1007/s10940-012-9182-x.
  • Harmon, M. G., & Boppre, B. (2015). Women of Color and the War on Crime: An explanation for the rise in female Black imprisonment. The Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice. Accepted author version posted online: 24 Jul 2015. doi:10.1080/15377938.2015.1052173.
  • Hartley, R. D., Maddan, S., & Spohn, C. (2007). Prosecutorial discretion: An examination of substantial assistance departures in federal crack-cocaine and powder-cocaine cases. Justice Quarterly, 24, 383–407. doi:10.1080/07418820701485379.
  • Hebert, C. (1997). Sentencing outcomes of Black, Hispanic, and White males convicted under federal sentencing guidelines. Criminal Justice Review, 22, 133–156. doi:10.1177/073401689702200202.
  • Hershey, M. R. (2007). Party politics in America (12th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson Longman.
  • Hsiao, C. (2003). Analysis of panel data (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  • Johnson, B. (2003). Racial and ethnic disparities in sentencing departures across modes of conviction. Criminology, 41, 449–489. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb00994.x.
  • Koons‐Witt, B. A. (2002). The effect of gender on the decision to incarcerate before and after the introduction of sentencing guidelines. Criminology, 40, 297–328. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2002.tb00958.x.
  • Koons-Witt, B. A., Sevigny, E. L., Burrow, J. D., & Hester, R. (2014). Gender and sentencing outcomes in South Carolina Examining the interactions with race, age, and offense type. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 25, 299–324. doi:10.1177/0887403412468884.
  • Langan, P. A. (1991). America's soaring prison population. Science, 251, 1568–1573. doi:10.1126/science.251.5001.1568.
  • Liska, A. E., & Chamlin, M. B. (1984). Social structure and crime control among macrosocial units. American Journal of Sociology, 90, 383–395. doi:10.1086/228084.
  • Lynch, J. P. (1993). A cross-national comparison of the length of custodial sentences for serious crimes. Justice Quarterly, 10, 639–660. doi:10.1080/07418829300092051.
  • Marvell, T. B. (1995). Sentencing Guidelines and Prison Population-Growth. Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 85, 696–709. doi:10.2307/1144046.
  • Marvell, T. B., & Moody, C. E. (1996). Determinate sentencing and abolishing parole: The long-term impacts on prisons and crime. Criminology, 34, 107–128. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1996.tb01197.x.
  • Mauer, M. (2001). The causes and consequences of prison growth in the United States. Punishment & Society, 3, 9–20. doi:10.1177/14624740122228212.
  • Mauer, M. (2002). State sentencing reforms: Is the “Get Tough” era coming to a close? Federal Sentencing Reporter, 15, 50–52. doi:10.1525/fsr.2002.15.1.50.
  • Mauer, M., & Huling, T. (1995). Young Black Americans and the criminal justice system: Five years later. Washington, DC: Sentencing Project.
  • McDonald, D., & Carlson, K. (1994). Why did racial/ethnic sentencing differences in federal district courts grow larger under the guidelines? Federal Sentencing Reporter, 6, 223–226. doi:10.2307/20639686.
  • Merton, R. K. (1936). The unanticipated consequences of purposive social action. American Sociological Review, 1, 894–904. doi:10.2307/2084615.
  • Mustard, D. B. (2001). Racial, ethnic, and gender disparities in sentencing: Evidence from the us federal courts. Journal of Law and Economics, 44, 285–314. doi:10.1086/320276.
  • Potter, H. (2013). Intersectional criminology: Interrogating identity and power in criminological research and theory. Critical Criminology, 21, 305–318. doi:10.1007/s10612-013-9203-6.
  • Potter, H. (2015). Intersectionality and criminology: Disrupting and revolutionizing studies of crime. New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Raeder, M. S. (1993). Gender and sentencing: Single moms, battered women, and other sex-based anomalies in the gender-free world of the federal sentencing guidelines. Pepperdine Law Review, 20, 905–990.
  • Reitz, K. (1995). State and federal sentencing guidelines: What's working? What isn't. Judicature, 78, 207–211.
  • Scheingold, S. A. (1991). The politics of street crime: Criminal process and cultural obsession. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
  • Simon, J. (2007). Governing through crime: How the war on crime transformed American democracy and created a culture of fear. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Spears, J. W., & Spohn, C. C. (1997). The effect of evidence factors and victim characteristics on prosecutors' charging decisions in sexual assault cases. Justice Quarterly, 14, 501–524. doi:10.1080/07418829700093451.
  • Spohn, C. (2000). Thirty years of sentencing reform: The quest for a racially neutral sentencing process. Criminal Justice, 3, 427–501.
  • Spohn, C., & Beichner, D. (2000). Is preferential treatment of female offenders a thing of the past? A multisite study of gender, race, and imprisonment. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 11, 149–184. doi:10.1177/0887403400011002004.
  • Spohn, C., Gruhl, J., & Welch, S. (1987). The impact of the ethnicity and gender of defendants on the decision to reject or dismiss felony charges. Criminology, 25, 175–192. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1987.tb00794.x.
  • Spohn, C., & Holleran, D. (2000). The imprisonment penalty paid by young, unemployed Black and Hispanic male offenders. Criminology, 38, 281–306. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2000.tb00891.x.
  • Stacey, A. M., & Spohn, C. (2006). Gender and the social costs of sentencing: An analysis of sentences imposed on male and female offenders in three US District Courts. Berkeley Journal of Criminal Law, 11, 43–129.
  • Steffensmeier, D., & Demuth, S. (2006). Does gender modify the effects of race–ethnicity on criminal sanctioning? Sentences for male and female white, black, and Hispanic defendants. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 22, 241–261. doi:10.1007/s10940-006-9010-2.
  • Steffensmeier, D., Ulmer, J., & Kramer, J. (1998). The interaction of race, gender, and age in criminal sentencing: The punishment cost of being young, Black, and male. Criminology, 36, 763–798. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01265.x.
  • Stemen, D., Rengifo, A., & Wilson, J. (2006). Of fragmentation and ferment: Impact of state sentencing policies on incarceration rates in the United States, 1975–2002. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
  • Sutton, J. R. (2013). Symbol and substance: Effects of California's Three Strikes Law on felony sentencing. Law & Society Review, 47, 37–72. doi:10.1111/lasr.12001.
  • Tonry, M. (1995). Malign neglect: Race, crime and punishment in America. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Tonry, M. (2005). The functions of sentencing and sentencing reform. Stanford Law Review, 58, 37–66.
  • Tonry, M. (2011). Punishing race: A continuing American dilemma. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Trend, D. (2007). The myth of media violence: A critical introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
  • Turner, S., Greenwood, P. W., Chen, E., & Fain, T. (1999). Impact of Truth in Sentencing and Three Strikes legislation: Prison populations, state budgets, and crime rates. The Stanford Law & Policy Review, 11, 75–91.
  • Tillyer, R., Hartley, R. D., & Ward, J. T. (2015). Differential treatment of female defendants: Does criminal history moderate the effect of gender on sentence length in federal narcotics cases?. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 42, 703–721. doi:10.1177/0093854814560624.
  • Ulmer, J., & Johnson, B. (2004). Sentencing in context: A multilevel analysis. Criminology, 42, 137–177. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2004.tb00516.x.
  • Ulmer, J., & Kramer, J. (1998). The use and transformation of formal decision-making criteria: Sentencing guidelines, organizational contexts, and case processing strategies. Social Problems, 45, 248–267. doi:10.2307/3097246.
  • U.S. Census Bureau. (2013). 2013 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates: Sex by age (Black or African American alone). Available at http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_13_1YR_DP05&prodType=table.
  • Windsor, L. C., Dunlap, E., & Golub, A. (2011). Challenging controlling images, oppression, poverty, and other structural constraints: Survival strategies among African–American women in distressed households. Journal of African American Studies, 15, 290–306. doi:10.1007/s12111-010-9151-0.
  • Zatz, M. (1987). The changing form of racial/ethnic differences in sentencing. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 25, 69–92. doi:10.1177/0022427887024001005.
  • Zhang, Y., Maxwell, C. D., & Vaughn, M. S. (2009). The impact of state sentencing policies on the US prison population. Journal of Criminal Justice, 37, 190–199. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2009.02.012.
  • Zingraff, M., & Thomson, R. (1984). Differential sentencing of women and men in the USA. International Journal of the Sociology of Law, 12, 401–413.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.