Impairment due to alcohol, tetrahydrocannabinol, and benzodiazepines in impaired drivers compared to experimental studies

References

• Bachs L, Hoiseth G, Skurtveit S, Morland J. Heroin-using drivers: importance of morphine and morphine-6-glucuronide on late clinical impairment. EurJ Clin Pharmacol. 2006;62:905–912.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berghaus G, Grass H. Concentration–effect relationship with benzodiazepine therapy. In: Mercier-Guyon C, ed. Alcohol, Drugs and Traffic Safety. 2. Annecy, France: The International Council on Alcohol, Drugs and Traffic Safety; 1997:705.
   Google Scholar
• Berghaus G, Kruger HP. Cannabis im Strassenverkehr; Beeinträchtigung fahrrelevanter leistungen nach rauchen von cannabis und alcoholconsum. Eine vergleichende metaanalyse experimenteller studien. Stuttgart, Germany: Gustav Fisher Verlag; 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Berghaus G, Grellner W. Meta-analysis of Empirical Studies Concerning the Effects of Medicines and Illegal Drugs including Pharmacokinetics on Safe Driving. DRUID 6th Framework Programme. Würzburg, Germany: University of Würzburg; 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Bosker WM, Karschner EL, Lee D, et al. Psychomotor function in chronic daily cannabis smokers during sustained abstinence. PloS One. 2013;8:e53127.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bosker WM, Kuypers KP, Theunissen EL, et al. Medicinal delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (dronabinol) impairs on-the-road driving performance of occasional and heavy cannabis users but is not detected in standard field sobriety tests. Addiction. 2012;107:1837–1844.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bramness JG, Skurtveit S, Morland J. Clinical impairment of benzodiazepines—relation between benzodiazepine concentrations and impairment in apprehended drivers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2002;68:131–141.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bramness JG, Skurtveit S, Morland J. Testing for benzodiazepine inebriation—relationship between benzodiazepine concentration and simple clinical tests for impairment in a sample of drugged drivers. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2003;59:593–601.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Christophersen AS. Tetrahydrocannabinol stability in whole blood: plastic versus glass containers. J Anal Toxicol. 1986;10:129–131.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahl SR, Olsen KM, Strand DH. Determination of gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB), pregabalin, 1,4-butane-diol (1,4BD) and gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) in whole blood and urine samples by UPLC-MSMS. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci. 2012;885–886:37–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Drummer OH, Gerostamoulos J, Batziris H, et al. The involvement of drugs in drivers of motor vehicles killed in Australian road traffic crashes. Accid Anal Prev. 2004;36:239–248.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• D'Souza DC, Ranganathan M, Braley G, et al. Blunted psychotomimetic and amnestic effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in frequent users of cannabis. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2008;33:2505–2516.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DuPont RL, Voas RB, Walsh JM, Shea C, Talpins SK, Neil MM. The need for drugged driving per se laws: a commentary. Traffic Inj Prev. 2012;13:31–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eliassen E, Kristoffersen L. Quantitative determination of zopiclone and zolpidem in whole blood by liquid–liquid extraction and UHPLC-MS/MS. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci. 2014;971:72–80.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans SM, Funderburk FR, Griffiths RR. Zolpidem and triazolam in humans: behavioral and subjective effects and abuse liability. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1990;255:1246–1255.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gjerde H, Strand MC, Morland J. Driving under the influence of non-alcohol drugs—an update. Part I: epidemiological studies. Forensic Sci Rev. 2015;27:89–113.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gustavsen I, Al-Sammurraie M, Morland J, Bramness JG. Impairment related to blood drug concentrations of zopiclone and zolpidem compared to alcohol in apprehended drivers. Accid Anal Prev. 2009;41:462–466.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khiabani HZ, Bramness JG, Bjorneboe A, Morland J. Relationship between THC concentration in blood and impairment in apprehended drivers. Traffic Inj Prev. 2006;7:111–116.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kristoffersen L, Smith-Kielland A. An automated alcohol dehydrogenase method for ethanol quantification in urine and whole blood. J Anal Toxicol. 2005;29:387–389.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kristoffersen L, Stormyhr LE, Smith-Kielland A. Headspace gas chromatographic determination of ethanol: the use of factorial design to study effects of blood storage and headspace conditions on ethanol stability and acetaldehyde formation in whole blood and plasma. Forensic Sci Int. 2006;161:151–157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linnoila M, Stapleton JM, Lister R, et al. Effects of single doses of alprazolam and diazepam, alone and in combination with ethanol, on psychomotor and cognitive performance and on autonomic nervous system reactivity in healthy volunteers. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1990;39:21–28.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin TL, Solbeck PA, Mayers DJ, Langille RM, Buczek Y, Pelletier MR. A review of alcohol-impaired driving: the role of blood alcohol concentration and complexity of the driving task. J Forensic Sci. 2013;58:1238–1250.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mattila MJ, Vanakoski J, Kalska H, Seppala T. Effects of alcohol, zolpidem, and some other sedatives and hypnotics on human performance and memory. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1998;59:917–923.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morland J. Driving under the influence of non-alcohol drugs. Forensic Sci Rev. 2000;12:79–105.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mumford GK, Rush CR, Griffiths RR. Abecarnil and alprazolam in humans: behavioral, subjective and reinforcing effects. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1995;272:570–580.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oiestad EL, Johansen U, Oiestad AM, Christophersen AS. Drug screening of whole blood by ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. J Anal Toxicol. 2011;35:280–293.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramaekers JG, Berghaus G, van Laar M, Drummer OH. Dose related risk of motor vehicle crashes after cannabis use. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004;73:109–119.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramaekers JG, Moeller MR, van Ruitenbeek P, Theunissen EL, Schneider E, Kauert G. Cognition and motor control as a function of delta9-THC concentration in serum and oral fluid: limits of impairment. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006;85:114–122.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramaekers JG, Robbe HW, O'Hanlon JF. Marijuana, alcohol and actual driving performance. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2000;15:551–558.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reisfield GM, Goldberger BA, Gold MS, DuPont RL. The mirage of impairing drug concentration thresholds: a rationale for zero tolerance per se driving under the influence of drugs laws. J Anal Toxicol. 2012;36:353–356.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sauve EN, Langodegard M, Ekeberg D, Oiestad AM. Determination of benzodiazepines in ante-mortem and post-mortem whole blood by solid-supported liquid–liquid extraction and UPLC-MS/MS. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci. 2012;883–884:177–188.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schnabel E, Hargutt V, Krüger H-P. Meta-analysis of Empirical Studies Concerning the Effects of Alcohol on Safe Driving. DRUID 6th Framework Programme. Wuerzburg, Germany: University of Wuerzburg; 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Vindenes V, Aamo T, Innerdal C, et al. Rapport fra referansegruppe januar 2015: Revidering av «forskrift om faste grenser for påvirkning av andre berusende eller bedøvende middel enn alkohol m.m.» - Vurdering av eksisterende faste grenser og forslag til faste grenser for flere stoffer. Oslo, Norway: Samferdselsdepartementets; 2015.
   Google Scholar
• Vindenes V, Jordbru D, Knapskog AB, et al. Impairment based legislative limits for driving under the influence of non-alcohol drugs in Norway. Forensic Sci Int. 2012;219:1–11.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Voas RB, DuPont RL, Shea CL, Talpins SK. Prescription drugs, drugged driving and per se laws. Inj Prev. 2013;19:218–221.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar