Detection of the toughest: Pedestrian injury risk as a smooth function of age

References

• Aitken AC. On least squares and linear combinations of observations. Proc R Soc Edinb. 1935;55:42–48.
   Google Scholar
• Anderson RWG, McLean AJ, Farmer MJB, Lee BH, Brooks CG. Vehicle travel speeds and the incidence of fatal pedestrian crashes. Accid Anal Prev. 1997;29:667–674.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arbogast KB, Durbin DR, Kallan MJ, Elliott MR, Winston FK. Injury risk to restrained children exposed to deployed first- and second-generation air bags in frontal crashes. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2005;159:342–346.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Assailly JP. Characterization and prevention of child pedestrian accidents: an overview. J Appl Dev Psychol. 1997;18:257–262.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine. The Abbreviated Injury Scale 1990 Revision update 1998. Des Plaines, IL: Author; 1998.
   Google Scholar
• Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine. Abbreviated Injury Scale 2005 update 2008. Des Plaines, IL: Author; 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Baker SP, O'Neill B, Haddon W, Long WB. The Injury Severity Score: a method for describing patients with multiple injuries and evaluating emergency care. J Trauma. 1974;14(3):187–196.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ballesteros MF, Dischinger PC, Langenberg P. Pedestrian injuries and vehicle type in Maryland 1995–1999. Accid Anal Prev. 2004;36:73–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blackman RB, Tukey JW. The Measurement of Power Spectra from the Point of View of Communications Engineering. New York, NY: Dover Publications; 1959.
   Google Scholar
• Davis GA. Relating severity of pedestrian injury to impact speed in vehicle–pedestrian crashes: simple threshold model. Transp Res Rec. 2001;1773:108–113.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demetriades D, Murray J, Martin M, et al. Pedestrians injured by automobiles: relationship of age to injury type and severity. J Am Coll Surg. 2004;199:382–387.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Demetriades D, Sava J, Alo K, et al. Old age as a criterion for trauma team activation. J Trauma. 2001;51:754–757.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ertel JE, Fowlkes EB. Some algorithms for linear spline and piecewise multiple linear regression. J Am Stat Assoc. 1976;71:640–648.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feder PI. On asymptotic distribution theory in segmented regression problems—identified case. Ann Stat. 1975;3:49–83.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrell WA. Precautionary street crossing by elderly pedestrians. Int J Aging Hum Dev. 1991;32:65–81.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hastie T, Tibshirani R, Friedman J. The Elements of Staistical Learning: Data Mining, Inference, and Prediction. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Springer; 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Kim J-K, Ulfarsson GF, Shankar VN, Kim S. Age and pedestrian injury severity in motor-vehicle crashes: a heteroskedastic logit analysis. Accid Anal Prev. 2008;40:1695–1702.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim J-K, Ulfarsson GF, Shankar VN, Mannering FL. A note on modeling pedestrian-injury severity in motor-vehicle crashes with the mixed logit model. Accid Anal Prev. 2010;42:1751–1758.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kockelman KM, Kweon Y. Driver injury severity: an application of ordered probit models. Accid Anal Prev. 2002;34:313–321.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kreiß J-P, Pastor C, Dobberstein J, et al. Extrapolation of GIDAS accident data to Europe. Paper presented at: 24th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV); June 8–11, 2015; Gothenburg, Sweden.
   Google Scholar
• LaScala EA, Gerber D, Gruenewald PJ. Demographic and environmental correlates of pedestrian injury collisions: a spatial analysis. Accid Anal Prev. 2000;32:651–658.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leden L, Gårder P, Johansson C. Safe pedestrian crossings for children and elderly. Accid Anal Prev. 2006;38:289–294.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li G, Yang J, Simms C. A virtual test system representing the distribution of pedestrian impact configurations for future vehicle front-end optimization. Traffic Inj Prev. 2016;17(5):515–523.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mannering FL, Bhat CR. Analytic methods in accident research: methodological frontier and future directions. Anal Methods Accid Res. 2014;1:1–22.
   Google Scholar
• Maring W, van Schagen I. Age dependence of attitudes and knowledge in cyclists. Accid Anal Prev. 1990;22(2):127–136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McMurry TL, Poplin GS. Statistical considerations in the development of injury risk functions. Traffic Inj Prev. 2015;16:618–626.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muggeo VMR. Estimating regression models with unknown break-points. Stat Med. 2003;22:3055–3071.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niebuhr T, Junge M, Achmus S. Pedestrian injury risk functions based on contour lines of equal injury severity using real world pedestrian/passenger–car accident data. Ann Adv Automot Med. 2013;57:145–154.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Niebuhr T, Junge M, Rosén E. Pedestrian injury risk and the effect of age. Accid Anal Prev. 2016;86:121–128.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Osler T, Baker SP, Long W. A modification of the injury severity score that both improves accuracy and simplifies scoring. J Trauma. 1997;43:922–926.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Otte D, Krettek C, Brunner H, Zwipp H. Scientific approach and methodology of a new in-depth-investigation study in Germany so called GIDAS. Paper presented at: 18th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles; May 19–22, 2003; Nagoya, Japan.
   Google Scholar
• Oxley J, Fildes B, Ihsen E, Charlton J, Day R. Difference in traffic judgements between young and old adult pedestrians. Accid Anal Prev. 1997;29:839–847.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petrucelli E, States JD, Hames LN. The Abbreviated Injury Scale: evolution, usage and future adaptability. Accid Anal Prev. 1981;12:29–35.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosén E, Sander U. Pedestrian fatality risk as a function of car impact speed. Accid Anal Prev. 2009;41:536–542.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savolainen PT, Mannering FL, Lord D, Quddus MA. The statistical analysis of highway crash-injury severities: a review and assessment of methodological alternatives. Accid Anal Prev. 2011;43:1666–1676.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scalea TM, Simon HM, Duncan AO, et al. Geriatric blunt multiple trauma: improved survival with early invasive monitoring. J Trauma. 1990;30:129–136.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sklar DP, Demarast GB, McFeeley P. Increased pedestrian mortality among the elderly. Am J Emerg Med. 1989;7:387–390.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Somers RL. The probability of death score: an improvement of the injury severity score. Accid Anal Prev. 1983;15:247–257.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Starnes MJ, Hadjizacharia P, Chan LS, Demetriades D. Automobile versus pedestrian injuries: does gender matter? J Emerg Med. 2011;40:617–622.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• States JD. Abbreviated and the Comprehensive Research Injury Scales. Paper presented at: 13th Stapp Car Crash Conference; December 2–4, 1969; New York, NY.
   Google Scholar
• States JD, Huelke DF. The Abbreviated Injury Scale. 1980 Revision. Morton Grove, IL: American Association for Automotive Medicine; 1980.
   Google Scholar
• Sze NN, Wong SC. Diagnostic analysis of the logistic model for pedestrian injury severity in traffic crashes. Accid Anal Prev. 2007;39:1267–1278.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ulfarsson GF, Mannering FL. Difference in male and female injury severities in sport-utility vehicle, minivan, pickup and passenger car accidents. Accid Anal Prev. 2004;36(2):135–147.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner AK, Soumerai SB, Zhang F, Ross-Degnan D. Segmented regression analysis of interrupted time series studies in medication use research. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2002;27:299–309.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zegeer CV, Stutts JC, Rodgman E. Analysis of elderly pedestrian accidents and recommended countermeausres. J Safety Res. 1996;27(2):128.
   Google Scholar