Factors contributing to serious and fatal injuries in belted rear seat occupants in frontal crashes

References

• Adams VI. Neck injuries: I. Occipitoatlantal dislocation—a pathologic study of twelve traffic fatalities. J Forensic Sci. 1992;37:556–564.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arbogast KS, Locey CM, Zonfrillo M. Differences in thoracic injury causation patterns between seat belt restrained children and adults. Ann Adv Automot Med. 2012;56:213–221.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aylor DA, Nolan JM, Zuby DS, Baker BC. How the 64.4 km/h (40 mi/h) frontal offset deformable barrier crash test relates to real-world crash severity. Paper presented at: Expert Symposium of Accident Research (ESAR); 2006; Hannover, Germany.
   Google Scholar
• Beck B, Bilston LE, Brown J. Injury patterns of rear seat occupants in frontal impact: an in-depth crash investigation study. Inj Prev. 2016;22(3):165–170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bilston LE, Du W, Brown J. A matched-cohort analysis of belted front and rear seat occupants in newer and older model vehicles shows that gains in front occupant safety have outpaced gains for rear seat occupants. Accid Anal Prev. 2010;42:1974–1977.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braver ER, Whitfield R, Ferguson SA. Seating positions and children's risk of dying in motor vehicle crashes. Inj Prev. 1998;4(3):181–187.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brumbelow ML, Baker BC, Nolan JM. Effects of seat belt load limiters on driver fatalities in frontal crashes of passenger cars. In: Proceedings of the 20th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles. Washington, DC: NHTSA; 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Durbin DR, Arbogast KB, Moll EK. Seat belt syndrome in children: a case report and review of the literature. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2001;17:474–477.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durbin DR, Chen I, Smith R, Elliott MR, Winston FK. Effects of seating position and appropriate restraint use on the risk of injury to children in motor vehicle crashes. Pediatrics. 2005;115:e305–e309.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Durbin DR, Jermakian JS, Kallan MJ, et al. Rear seat safety: variation in protection by occupant, crash and vehicle characteristics. Accid Anal Prev. 2015;80:185–192.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards M, Nash C. Inflatable shoulder belts and inboard upper anchor shoulder‐belt geometry in far‐side oblique impacts. Paper presented at: International Research Council on Biomechanics of Injury (IRCOBI); 2017; Antwerp, Belgium.
   Google Scholar
• Farmer CM, Lund AK. The effects of vehicle redesign on the risk of driver death. Traffic Inj Prev. 2015;16:684–690.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Forman J, Lopez-Valdes F, Lessley D, et al. Rear seat occupant safety: an investigation of a progressive force-limiting, pretensioning 3-point belt system using adult PMHS in frontal sled tests. Stapp Car Crash J. 2009;53:49–74.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Forman J, Michaelson J, Kent R, Kuppa S, Bostrom O. Occupant restraint in the rear seat: ATD responses to standard and pre-tensioning, force-limiting belt restraints. Ann Adv Automot Med. 2008;52:141–154.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hall GC, Kinsman MJ, Nazar RG, et al. Atlanto-occipital dislocation. World J Orthop. 2015;6:236–243.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hu J, Reed MP, Rupp JD, Fischer K, Lange P, Adler A. Optimizing seat belt and airbag designs for rear seat occupant protection in frontal crashes. Stapp Car Crash J. 2017;61:67–100.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. General Statistics Fatality Facts. 2016. Available at: http://www.iihs.org/iihs/topics/t/general-statistics/fatalityfacts/overview-of-fatality-facts. Accessed March 14, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Kuppa S, Saunders J, Fessahaie O. Rear seat occupant protection in frontal crashes. In: Proceedings of the 19th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV). Washington, DC: NHTSA; 2005.
   Google Scholar
• Locey CM, Garcia-Espana JF, Toh A, Belwadi A, Arbogast KB, Maltese MR. Homogenization of vehicle fleet frontal crash pulses from 2000–2010. Ann Adv Automot Med. 2012;56:299–311.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Montane I, Eismont FJ, Green BA. Traumatic occipitoatlantal dislocation. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1991;16(2):112–116.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nance ML, Lutz N, Arbogast KB, et al. Optimal restraint reduces the risk of abdominal injury in children involved in motor vehicle crashes. Ann Surg. 2004;239:127–131.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NHTSA. Letter of Interpretation about Load Limiters and the Belt Elongation Requirements of Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No. 209, Seat Belt Assemblies [legal interpretation]. 2001. Available at: https://www.nhtsa.gov/interpretations/24256ogm. Accessed March 14, 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Nolan JM, Preuss CA, Jones SL, O’Neill B. An update on relationships between computed delta-Vs and impact speeds for offset crashes. Paper presented at: 16th International Conference on Enhanced Safety of Vehicles; June 1998; Windsor, Canada.
   Google Scholar
• Parenteau C, Viano DC. Field data analysis or rear occupant injuries part I: adults and teenagers. Paper presented at: SAE World Congress; 2003; Detroit, MI.
   Google Scholar
• Sahraei E, Digges K, Marzougui D. Reduced protection for belted occupants in rear seats relative to front seats of new model year vehicles. Annu Proc Assoc Adv Automot Med. 2010;54:149–158.
   Google Scholar
• Sherwood CP, Ferguson SA, Crandall JR. Factors leading to crash fatalities to children in child restraints. Ann Assoc Adv Automot Med. 2003,47:343–359.
   Google Scholar
• Sherwood CP, Zuby DS, Nolan JM, Aylor DA. The accuracy of velocity change estimates in small overlap frontal crashes. Paper presented at: Expert Symposium of Accident Research (ESAR); 2010; Hannover, Germany.
   Google Scholar
• Stucki S, Fessahaie O. Comparison of Measured Velocity Change in Frontal Crash Tests to NASS Computed Velocity Change. 1998. SAE Technical Paper 980649. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers.
   Google Scholar
• Sundararajan S, Rouhana SW, Board D, et al. Biomechanical assessment of a rear-seat inflatable seatbelt in frontal impacts. Stapp Car Crash J. 2011;55:161–198.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Winston F, Xie D, Durbin D, Elliot MR. Are child passengers bringing up the rear? Evidence for differential improvements in injury risk between drivers and their child passengers. Ann Adv Automot Med. 2007;51;113–127.
   Google Scholar