551
Views
60
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
BASIC REVIEW

Pneumocystis: A Novel Pathogen in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease?

, &
Pages 43-51 | Published online: 02 Jul 2009

REFERENCES

  • Petty T L. Scope of the COPD problem in North America: early studies of prevalence and NHANES III data: basis for early identification and intervention. Chest 2000; 117: 326S–331S
  • Lopez A D, Murray C C. The global burden of disease, 1990–2020. Nat Med 1998; 4: 1241–1243
  • Pauwels R A, Buist A S, Ma P, Jenkins C R, Hurd S S. Global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and World Health Organization Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD): executive summary. Respir Care 2001; 46: 798–825
  • Mannino D M, Homa D M, Akinbami L J, Ford E S, Redd S C. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease surveillance–United States, 1971–2000. MMWR Surveill Summ 2002; 51: 1–16
  • Buist A S, Connett J E. The Lung Health Study. Baseline characteristics of randomized participants. Chest 1993; 103: 1644
  • Lacoste J Y, Bousquet J, Chanez P, Van Vyve T, Simony-Lafontaine J, Lequeu N, Vic P, Enander I, Godard P, Michel F B. Eosinophilic and neutrophilic inflammation in asthma, chronic bronchitis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1993; 92: 537–548
  • Keatings V M, Collins P D, Scott D M, Barnes P J. Differences in interleukin-8 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in induced sputum from patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or asthma. AmJ Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 153: 530–534
  • O'Shaughnessy T C, Ansari T W, Barnes N C, Jeffery P K. Inflammation in bronchial biopsies of subjects with chronic bronchitis: inverse relationship of CD8+ T lymphocytes with FEV1. AmJ Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 155: 852–857
  • Saetta M, Di Stefano A, Turato G, Facchini F M, Corbino L, Mapp C E, Maestrelli P, Ciaccia A, Fabbri L M. CD8+ T-lymphocytes in peripheral airways of smokers with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. AmJ Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157: 822–826
  • Retamales I, Elliott W M, Meshi B, Coxson H O, Pare P D, Sciurba F C, Rogers R M, Hayashi S, Hogg J C. Amplification of inflammation in emphysema and its association with latent adenoviral infection. AmJ Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164: 469–473
  • Rutgers S R, Timens W, Kauffman H F, Postma D S. Markers of active airway inflammation and remodelling in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Clin Exp Allergy 2001; 31: 193–205
  • Hogg J C, Chu F, Utokaparch S, Woods R, Elliott W M, Buzatu L, Cherniack R M, Rogers R M, Sciurba F C, Coxson H O, Pare P D. The nature of small-airway obstruction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N EnglJ Med 2004; 350: 2645–2653
  • Kerstjens H, Postma D, ten Hacken N. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Clin Evid 2006; 2077–2100
  • Matsuse T, Hayashi S, Kuwano K, Keunecke H, Jefferies W A, Hogg J C. Latent adenoviral infection in the pathogenesis of chronic airways obstruction. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 146: 177–184
  • Vitalis T Z, Kern I, Croome A, Behzad H, Hayashi S, Hogg J C. The effect of latent adenovirus 5 infection on cigarette smoke-induced lung inflammation. Eur RespirJ 1998; 11: 664–669
  • Sethi S. Bacterial infection and the pathogenesis of COPD. Chest 2000; 117: 286S–291S
  • Sethi S. Bacteria in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: phenomenon or epiphenomenon?. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2004; 1: 109–114
  • Wilkinson T M, Patel I S, Wilks M, Donaldson G C, Wedzicha J A. Airway bacterial load and FEV1 decline in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. AmJ Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 167: 1090–1095
  • Sethi S. Infectious etiology of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Chest 2000; 117: 380S–385S
  • Stockley R A, Hill A T, Hill S L, Campbell E J. Bronchial inflammation: its relationship to colonizing microbial load and alpha(1)-antitrypsin deficiency. Chest 2000; 117: 291S–293S
  • Patel I S, Seemungal T A, Wilks M, Lloyd-Owen S J, Donaldson G C, Wedzicha J A. Relationship between bacterial colonisation and the frequency, character, and severity of COPD exacerbations. Thorax 2002; 57: 759–764
  • Zalacain R, Sobradillo V, Amilibia J, Barron J, Achotegui V, Pijoan J I, Llorente J L. Predisposing factors to bacterial colonization in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur RespirJ 1999; 13: 343–348
  • Meshi B, Vitalis T Z, Ionescu D, Elliott W M, Liu C, Wang X D, Hayashi S, Hogg J C. Emphysematous lung destruction by cigarette smoke. The effects of latent adenoviral infection on the lung inflammatory response. AmJ Respir Cell Mol Biol 2002; 26: 52–57
  • Rohde G, Wiethege A, Borg I, Kauth M, Bauer T T, Gillissen A, Bufe A, Schultze-Werninghaus G. Respiratory viruses in exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease requiring hospitalisation: a case-control study. Thorax 2003; 58: 37–42
  • Seemungal T, Harper-Owen R, Bhowmik A, Moric I, Sanderson G, Message S, Maccallum P, Meade T W, Jeffries D J, Johnston S L, Wedzicha J A. Respiratory viruses, symptoms, and inflammatory markers in acute exacerbations and stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. AmJ Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164: 1618–1623
  • Papi A, Bellettato C M, Braccioni F, Romagnoli M, Casolari P, Caramori G, Fabbri L M, Johnston S L. Infections and airway inflammation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease severe exacerbations. AmJ Respir Crit Care Med 2006; 173: 1114–1121
  • Mallia P, Message S D, Kebadze T, Parker H L, Kon O M, Johnston S L. An experimental model of rhinovirus induced chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations: a pilot study. Respir Res 2006; 7: 116
  • Martinello R A, Esper F, Weibel C, Ferguson D, Landry M L, Kahn J S. Human metapneumovirus and exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. J Infect 2006; 53: 248–254
  • Matsukura S, Kokubu F, Noda H, Tokunaga H, Adachi M. Expression of IL-6, IL-8, and RANTES on human bronchial epithelial cells, NCI-H292, induced by influenza virus A. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1996; 98: 1080–1087
  • Zhang Y, Luxon B A, Casola A, Garofalo R P, Jamaluddin M, Brasier A R. Expression of respiratory syncytial virus-induced chemokine gene networks in lower airway epithelial cells revealed by cDNA microarrays. J Virol 2001; 75: 9044–9058
  • Edman J C, Kovacs J A, Masur H, Santi D V, Elwood H J, Sogin M L. Ribosomal RNA sequence shows Pneumocystis carinii to be a member of the fungi. Nature 1988; 334: 519–522
  • Stringer J R, Edman J C, Cushion M T, Richards F F, Watanabe J. The fungal nature of Pneumocystis. J Med Vet Mycol 1992; 30: 271–278, Suppl 1
  • Stringer J R. Pneumocystis carinii: what is it, exactly?. Clin Microbiol Rev 1996; 9: 489–498
  • Meuwissen J H, Tauber I, Leeuwenberg A D, Beckers P J, Sieben M. Parasitologic and serologic observations of infection with Pneumocystis in humans. J Inf Dis 1977; 136: 43–49
  • Pifer L L, Hughes W T, Stagno S, Woods D. Pneumocystis carinii infection: evidence for high prevalence in normal and immunosuppressed children. Pediatrics 1978; 61: 35–41
  • Wakefield A E, Stewart T J, Moxon E R, Marsh K, Hopkin J M. Infection with Pneumocystis carinii is prevalent in healthy Gambian children. Trans Royal Soc Trop Med Hygiene 1990; 84: 800–802
  • Hughes W T. Natural mode of acquisition for de novo infection with Pneumocystis carinii. J Infect Dis 1982; 145: 842–848
  • Powles M A, McFadden D C, Pittarelli L A, Schmatz D M. Mouse model for Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia that uses natural transmission to initiate infection. Infect Immun 1992; 60: 1397–1400
  • Ceré N, Polack B, Chanteloup N K, Coudert P. Natural transmission of Pneumocystis carinii in nonimmunosuppressed animals: early contagiousness of experimentally infected rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). J Clin Micro 1997; 35: 2670–2672
  • Gigliotti F, Harmsen A G, Wright T W. Characterization of transmission of Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. muris through immunocompetent BALB/c mice. Infect Immun 2003; 71: 3852–3856
  • Wakefield A E, Pixley F J, Banerji S, Sinclair K, Miller R F, Moxon E R, Hopkin J M. Detection of Pneumocystis carinii with DNA amplification. Lancet 1990; 336: 451–453
  • Wakefield A E, Pixley F J, Banerji S, Sinclair K, Miller R F, Moxon E R, Hopkin J M. Amplification of mitochondrial ribosomal RNA sequences from Pneumocystis carinii DNA of rat and human origin. Mol Biochem Parasitol 1990; 43: 69–76
  • Peters S E, Wakefield A E, Sinclair K, Millard P R, Hopkin J M. A search for Pneumocystis carinii in post-mortem lungs by DNA amplification. J Pathol 1992; 166: 195–198
  • Leigh T R, Kangro H O, Gazzard B G, Jeffries D J, Collins J V. DNA amplification by the polymerase chain reaction to detect sub-clinical Pneumocystis carinii colonization in HIV-positive and HIV-negative male homosexuals with and without respiratory symptoms. Respir Med 1993; 87: 525–529
  • Tamburrini E, Ortona E, Visconti E, Margutti P, Mencarini P, Zolfo M, Marinaci S, Siracusano A. Detection of Pneumocystis carinii in oropharyngeal washings by PCR-SHELA and nested PCR. J Eukaryot Microbiol 1997; 44: 48S
  • Nevez G, Raccurt C, Vincent P, Jounieaux V, Dei-Cas E. Pulmonary colonization with Pneumocystis carinii in human immunodeficiency virus-negative patients: assessing risk with blood CD4+ T cell counts. Clin Infect Dis 1999; 29: 1331–1332
  • Olsson M, Elvin K, Lofdahl S, Linder E. Detection of Pneumocystis carinii DNA in sputum and bronchoalveolar lavage samples by polymerase chain reaction. J Clin Microbiol 1993; 31: 221–226
  • Leibovitz E, Pollack H, Moore T, Papellas J, Gallo L, Krasinski K, Borkowsky W. Comparison of PCR and standard cytological staining for detection of Pneumocystis carinii from respiratory specimens from patients with or at high risk for infection by human immunodeficiency virus. J Clin Microbiol 1995; 33: 3004–3007
  • Matos O, Costa M C, Lundgren B, Caldeira L, Aguiar P, Antunes F. Effect of oral washes on the diagnosis of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia with a low parasite burden and on detection of organisms in subclinical infections. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2001; 20: 573–575
  • Morris A, Kingsley L A, Groner G, Lebedeva I P, Beard C B, Norris K A. Prevalence and clinical predictors of Pneumocystis colonization among HIV-infected men. AIDS 2004; 18: 793–798
  • Huang L, Crothers K, Morris A, Groner G, Fox M, Turner J R, Merrifield C, Eiser S, Zucchi P, Beard C B. Pneumocystis colonization in HIV-infected patients. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2003; 50: 616–617, Suppl
  • Calderon E J, Regordan C, Medrano F J, Ollero M, Varela J M. Pneumocystis carinii infection in patients with chronic bronchial disease. Lancet 1996; 347: 977
  • Calderon E, de la Horra C, Medrano F J, Lopez-Suarez A, Montes-Cano M A, Respaldiza N, Elvira-Gonzalez J, Martin-Juan J, Bascunana A, Varela J M. Pneumocystis jiroveci isolates with dihydropteroate synthase mutations in patients with chronic bronchitis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2004; 23: 545–549
  • Sing A, Roggenkamp A, Autenrieth I B, Heesemann J. Pneumocystis carinii carriage in immunocompetent patients with primary pulmonary disorders as detected by single or nested PCR. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37: 3409–3410
  • Probst M, Ries H, Schmidt-Wieland T, Serr A. Detection of Pneumocystis carinii DNA in patients with chronic lung diseases. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2000; 19: 644–645
  • Helweg-Larsen J, Jensen J S, Dohn B, Benfield T L, Lundgren B. Detection of Pneumocystis DNA in samples from patients suspected of bacterial pneumonia–a case-control study. BMC Infect Dis 2002; 2: 28
  • Morris A, Sciurba F C, Lebedeva I P, Githaiga A, Elliott W M, Hogg J C, Huang L, Norris K A. Association of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease severity and Pneumocystis colonization. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004; 170: 408–413
  • Maskell N A, Waine D J, Lindley A, Pepperell J C, Wakefield A E, Miller R F, Davies R J. Asymptomatic carriage of Pneumocystis jiroveci in subjects undergoing bronchoscopy: a prospective study. Thorax 2003; 58: 594–597
  • Diaz P T, Clanton T L, Pacht E R. Emphysema-like pulmonary disease associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Ann Intern Med 1992; 116: 124–128
  • Diaz P T, King M A, Pacht E R, Wewers M D, Gadek J E, Nagaraja H N, Drake J, Clanton T L. Increased susceptibility to pulmonary emphysema among HIV-seropositive smokers. Ann Intern Med 2000; 132: 369–372
  • Fleischman J K, Greenberg H, Web A. Small airways dysfunction in patients with AIDS and Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. AIDS Patient Care STDS 1996; 10: 16–20
  • Shaw R J, Roussak C, Forster S M, Harris J R, Pinching A J, Mitchell D M. Lung function abnormalities in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus with and without overt pneumonitis. Thorax 1988; 43: 436–440
  • Morris A M, Huang L, Bacchetti P, Turner J, Hopewell P C, Wallace J M, Kvale P A, Rosen M J, Glassroth J, Reichman L B, Stansell J D. Permanent declines in pulmonary function following pneumonia in human immunodeficiency virus-infected persons. The Pulmonary Complications of HIV Infection Study Group. AmJ Respir Crit Care Med 2000; 162: 612–616
  • Di Stefano A, Capelli A, Lusuardi M, Balbo P, Vecchio C, Maestrelli P, Mapp C E, Fabbri L M, Donner C F, Saetta M. Severity of airflow limitation is associated with severity of airway inflammation in smokers. AmJ Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 158: 1277–1285
  • Pesci A, Balbi B, Majori M, Cacciani G, Bertacco S, Alciato P, Donner C F. Inflammatory cells and mediators in bronchial lavage of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Eur RespirJ 1998; 12: 380–386
  • Saetta M, Baraldo S, Corbino L, Turato G, Braccioni F, Rea F, Cavallesco G, Tropeano G, Mapp C E, Maestrelli P, Ciaccia A, Fabbri L M. CD8+ve cells in the lungs of smokers with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. AmJ Respir Crit Care Med 1999; 160: 711–717
  • Barnes P J, Cosio M G. Characterization of T lymphocytes in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. PLoS Med 2004; 1: e20
  • Grumelli S, Corry D B, Song L Z, Song L, Green L, Huh J, Hacken J, Espada R, Bag R, Lewis D E, Kheradmand F. An immune basis for lung parenchymal destruction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and emphysema. PLoS Med 2004; 1: e8
  • Barcelo B, Pons J, Fuster A, Sauleda J, Noguera A, Ferrer J M, Agusti A G. Intracellular cytokine profile of T lymphocytes in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Clin Exp Immunol 2006; 145: 474–479
  • Gadgil A, Zhu X, Sciurba F C, Duncan S R. Altered T-cell phenotypes in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2006; 3: 487–488
  • Tetley T D. New perspectives on basic mechanisms in lung disease. 6. Proteinase imbalance: its role in lung disease. Thorax 1993; 48: 560–565
  • Barnes P J, Shapiro S D, Pauwels R A. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: molecular and cellular mechanisms. Eur RespirJ 2003; 22: 672–688
  • Wright T W, Johnston C J, Harmsen A G, Finkelstein J N. Analysis of cytokine mRNA profiles in the lungs of Pneumocystis carinii-infected mice. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1997; 17: 491–500
  • Board K F, Patil S, Lebedeva I, Capuano S, 3rd, Trichel A M, Murphey-Corb M, Rajakumar P A, Flynn J L, Haidaris C G, Norris K A. Experimental Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in simian immunodeficiency virus-infected rhesus macaques. J Infect Dis 2003; 187: 576–588
  • Patil S P, Board K F, Lebedeva I P, Norris K A. Immune responses to Pneumocystis colonization and infection in a simian model of AIDS. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2003; 661–662, 50 Suppl
  • Varela J M, Respaldiza N, Sanchez B, de la Horra C, Montes-Cano M, Rincon M, Dapena J, Gonzalez-Becerra C, Medrano F J, Calderon E. Lymphocyte response in subjects with chronic pulmonary disease colonized by Pneumocystis jirovecii. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2003; 672–673, 50 Suppl
  • Sukura A, Konttinen Y T, Sepper R, Kaartinen L, Sorsa T, Lindberg L A. Collagenases and the serine proteinases elastase and cathepsin G in steroid-induced Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. J Clin Microbiol 1995; 33: 829–834
  • Qu J, Rong Z, He L, Pan J, Chen X. Relationship between the burden of Pneumocystis carinii, the inflammatory reaction and lung injury in Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia. Chin Med J (Engl) 2000; 113: 1071–1074
  • Atzori C, Mainini A, Agostoni F, Angeli E, Bartlett M, Bruno A, Scaglia M, Cargnel A. Detection of rat Pneumocystis carinii proteinases and elastase and anti Pneumocystis activity of proteinase inhibitors in vitro. Parasite 1999; 6: 9–16
  • Lugli E B, Allen A G, Wakefield A E. A Pneumocystis carinii multi-gene family with homology to subtilisin-like serine proteases. Microbiology 1997; 143: 2223–2236
  • Lee L H, Gigliotti F, Wright T W, Simpson-Haidaris P J, Weinberg G A, Haidaris C G. Molecular characterization of KEX1, a kexin-like protease in mouse Pneumocystis carinii. Gene 2000; 242: 141–150
  • Kutty G, Kovacs J A. A single-copy gene encodes Kex1, a serine endoprotease of Pneumocystis jiroveci. Infect Immun 2003; 71: 571–574
  • Hanrahan J P, Tager I B, Segal M R, Tosteson T D, Castile R G, Van Vunakis H, Weiss S T, Speizer F E. The effect of maternal smoking during pregnancy on early infant lung function. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992; 145: 1129–1135
  • Gaultier C. Cardiorespiratory adaptation during sleep in infants and children. Pediatr Pulmonol 1995; 19: 105–117
  • Norris K A, Morris A, Patil S, Fernandes E. Pneumocystis colonization, airway inflammation, and pulmonary function decline in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Immunol Res 2006; 36: 175–187

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.