The Interactive Effects of Self-Esteem, Goal Instructions, and Incentives on Personal Goals and Goal Attainment

REFERENCES

• Aguinis , H. 2007 . Performance management , Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Andrews , F. and Farris , G. 1972 . Time pressure and performance of scientists and engineers: A five-year panel study . Organizational Behavior & Human Performance , 8 : 185 – 200 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atkinson , J. 1958 . “ Towards experimental analysis of human motivation in terms of motives, expectancies and incentives ” . In Motives in fantasy, action and society , Edited by: Atkinson , J. W. 288 – 305 . New York , NY : Van Nostrand .
   Google Scholar
• Austin , J. T. 1989 . Effects of shifts in goal origin on goal acceptance and attainment . Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , 44 : 415 – 435 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandura , A. 1986 . Social foundations of thoughts and action: A social-cognitive view , Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Bandura , A. 1987 . “ Self-regulation of motivation and action through goal systems ” . In Cognitive perspectives on emotion and motivation , Edited by: Hamilton , V. , Bower , G. and Frijda , N. 37 – 61 . Boston , MA : Kluwer Academic .
   Google Scholar
• Baron , R. M. and Kenny , D. A. 1986 . The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research . Journal of Personality & Social Psychology , 51 : 1173 – 1182 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baum , J. and Locke , E. 2004 . The relationship of entrepreneurial traits, skill, and motivation to subsequent venture growth . Journal of Applied Psychology , 89 : 587 – 598 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baum , J. , Locke , E. and Smith , K. 2001 . A multidimensional model of venture growth . Academy of Management Journal , 44 ( 2 ) : 292 – 303 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumeister , R. F. 1998 . “ The Self ” . In The handbook of social psychology , 4th , Edited by: Gilbert , D. , Fiske , S. and Lindzey , G. 680 – 740 . New York , NY : McGraw-Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Baumeister , R. F. , Tice , D. and Hutton , D. 1989 . Self-presentational motivations and personality differences in self-esteem . Journal of Personality , 57 : 547 – 579 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumeister , R. F. , Campbell , J. , Krueger , J. and Vohs , K. 2003 . Does high self-esteem cause performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyle? . Psychological Science in the Public Interest , 4 : 1 – 44 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brockner , J. 1988 . Self-esteem at work , Lexington , MA : Lexington Books .
   Google Scholar
• Campbell , D. J. 1982 . Determinants of choice of goal difficulty level: A review of situational and personality influences . Journal of Occupational Psychology , 55 : 79 – 95 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , J. 1988 . Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences , 2nd , Hillsdale , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Condly , S. , Clark , R. and Stolovitch , H. 2003 . The effects of incentives on workplace performance: A meta-analytic review of research . Performance Improvement Quarterly , 16 : 46 – 63 .
   Google Scholar
• Crocker , J. and Park , L. 2004 . The costly pursuit of self-esteem . Psychological Bulletin , 130 : 392 – 414 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deci , G. and Ryan , R. 1985 . Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior , New York , NY : Plenum .
   Google Scholar
• Dholakia , U. and Bagozzi , R. 2003 . How goal and implementation intentions influence enactment of short-fuse behaviors . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 33 ( 5 ) : 889 – 922 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Di Paula , A. and Campbell , J. 2002 . Self-esteem and persistence in the face of failure . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 83 : 711 – 724 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donovan , J. and Williams , K. 2003 . Missing the mark: Effects of time and causal attributions on goal revision in response to goal performance discrepancies . Journal of Applied Psychology , 88 : 379 – 390 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliot , A. and Harackiewicz , J. 1996 . Approach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A meditational analysis . Journal of Personality & Social Psychology , 70 ( 3 ) : 461 – 475 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erez , M. 2005 . “Goal setting”, “goal orientation ” . In Blackwell encyclopedic dictionary of organizational behavior , Edited by: Nicholson , N. , Audia , P. and Pillutta , M. 138 – 141 . Oxford , , UK : Blackwell . ” In
   Google Scholar
• Erez , A. and Judge , T. 2001 . Relationship of core self-evaluations to goal setting, motivation, and performance . Journal of Applied Psychology , 86 : 1270 – 1279 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farh , J. , Griffeth , R. W. and Balkin , D. B. 1991 . Effects of choice of pay plans on satisfaction, goal setting, and performance . Journal of Organizational Behavior , 12 : 55 – 62 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frank , J. D. 1935 . Some psychological determinants of the level of aspiration . American Journal of Psychology , 47 : 285 – 293 .
   Google Scholar
• Frank , J. D. 1938 . “ Level of aspiration test ” . In Exploration in personality , Edited by: Murray , H. A. 461 – 471 . New York , NY : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Frank , J. D. 1941 . Recent studies of the level of aspiration . Psychological Bulletin , 38 ( 4 ) : 218 – 226 .
   Google Scholar
• Forward , J. and Zander , A. 1971 . Choice of unattainable group goals and effects on performance . Organizational Behavior & Human Performance , 6 : 184 – 199 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardner , D. and Pierce , J. 1988 . Self-esteem and self-efficacy within the organizational context: An empirical examination . Group & Organizational Management , 23 : 48 – 70 .
   Google Scholar
• Gardner , J. W. 1940 . The relation of certain personality variables to level of aspiration . Journal of Psychology , 9 : 191 – 206 .
   Google Scholar
• Gould , R. 1939 . An experimental analysis of “level of aspiration.” . General Psychological Monograph , 21 : 1 – 116 .
   Google Scholar
• Hall , D. 1971 . A theoretical model of career subidentity development in organizational setting . Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Process , 6 : 50 – 76 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hall , D. and Foster , L. W. 1977 . A psychological success model cycle and goal-setting: Goals, performance, and attitudes . Academy of Management Journal , 20 : 282 – 290 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harkins , S. G. and Lowe , M. D. 2000 . The effects of self-set goals on task performance . Journal of Applied Psychology , 85 : 1 – 40 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hechler , P. and Wiener , Y. 1974 . Chronic self-esteem as a moderator of performance consequences of expected pay . Organizational Behavior & Human Performance , 11 : 9 – 105 .
   Google Scholar
• Heimpel , S. , Elliot , A. and Wood , J. 2006 . Basic personality dispositions, self-esteem, and personal goals: An approach-avoidance analysis . Journal of Personality , 75 ( 5 ) : 1293 – 1319 .
   Google Scholar
• Himmelweit , H. 1947 . A comparative study of the level of aspiration of normal and of neurotic persons . British Journal of Psychology , 37 : 41 – 59 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinsz , V. B. , Kalnbach , L. R. and Lorentz , N. R. 1997 . Using judgmental anchors to establish challenging self-set goals without jeopardizing commitment . Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes , 71 : 287 – 308 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollenbeck , J. R. and Brief , A. P. 1987 . The effects of individual differences and goal origin on goal setting and performance . Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes , 40 : 392 – 414 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollenbeck , J. and Klein , H. 1987 . Goal commitment and the goal-setting process: Problems, prospects, and proposals for future research . Journal of Applied Psychology , 72 ( 2 ) : 212 – 220 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hollenbeck , J. R. , Williams , C. and Klein , H. 1989 . An empirical examination of the antecedents of commitment to difficult goals . Journal of Applied Psychology , 74 : 18 – 23 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoppe , F. 1930 . Erfolg und misserfolg . Psychologische Forschung , 14 : 1 – 62 .
   Google Scholar
• Jenkins , G. D. , Gupta , N. , Mitra , A. and Shaw , J. D. 1998 . Are financial incentives related to performance? A meta-analytic review of empirical research . Journal of Applied Psychology , 83 : 777 – 787 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Judge , T. , Bono , J. , Erez , A. and Locke , E. 2005 . Core self-evaluation and job and life satisfaction: The role of self-concordance and goal attainment . Journal of Applied Psychology , 90 ( 2 ) : 257 – 268 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalnbach , L. R. and Hinsz , V. B. 1999 . A conceptualization and test of the influences of individual differences in goal-setting situations . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 29 : 1854 – 1878 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanfer , R. 1987 . Task-specific motivation: An integrative approach to issues of measurement, mechanisms, processes, and determinants . Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology , 5 : 237 – 264 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanfer , R. and Heggestad , E. 1997 . Motivational traits and skills: A person-centered approach to work motivation . Research in Organizational Behavior , 19 : 1 – 57 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keppel , G. 1982 . Design and analysis: A research's handbook , 2nd , Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Klein , H. , Wesson , M. , Hollenbeck , J. , Wright , P. and DeShon , R. 2001 . The assessment of goal commitment: A measurement model meta-analysis . Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes , 85 : 32 – 55 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein , H. and Wright , P. 1994 . Antecedents of goal commitment: an empirical examination of personal and situational factors . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 24 ( 2 ) : 98 – 114 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Korman , A. 1970 . Toward a hypothesis of work behavior . Journal of Applied Psychology , 54 : 31 – 41 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latham , G. and Locke , E. 1991 . Self-regulation through goal setting . Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes , 50 : 212 – 247 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latham , G. and Locke , E. 2006 . Enhancing the benefits and overcoming the pitfalls of goal setting . Organizational Dynamics , 25 : 332 – 340 .
   Google Scholar
• Latham , G. and Pinder , C. 2005 . Work motivation theory and research at the dawn of the twenty-first century . Annual Review of Psychology , 56 : 485 – 516 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latham , G. , Saari , L. , Pursell , E. and Campion , M. 1980 . The situational interview . Journal of Applied Psychology , 65 : 422 – 427 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lawler , E. E. 1970 . Job attitudes and employee motivation . Personnel Psychology , 23 : 223 – 237 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee , C. 1988 . The effects of goal setting and monetary incentives on self-efficacy and performance . Journal of Business & Psychology , 2 ( 4 ) : 366 – 372 .
   Google Scholar
• Lee , F. , Sheldon , M. and Turban , D. 2003 . Personality and the goal-striving process . Journal of Applied Psychology , 88 : 256 – 265 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee , T. W. , Locke , E. A. and Phan , S. H. 1997 . Explaining the assigned goal-incentive interaction: The role of self-efficacy and personal goals . Journal of Management , 23 : 541 – 559 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy , P. E. and Baumgardner , A. H. 1991 . Effects of self-esteem and gender on goal choice . Journal of Organizational Behavior , 12 : 529 – 541 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewin , K. 1935 . A dynamic theory of personality , New York , NY : McGraw-Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Lewin , K. , Dembo , T. , Festinger , L. and Sears , P. S. 1944 . “ Level of aspiration ” . In Personality and the behavior disorder , Edited by: Hunt , J. M. 333 – 378 . New York , NY : Ronald Press .
   Google Scholar
• Locke , E. 1970 . Job satisfaction and job performance . Organizational Behavior & Human Performance , 5 : 484 – 500 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Locke , E. A. 2001 . “ Self-set goals and self-efficacy as mediators of incentives and personality ” . In Work motivation in the context of a globalizing economy , Edited by: Erez , M. , Kleinbeck , H. U. and Thierry , H. 13 – 26 . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Locke , E. A. 2004 . Linking goals to monetary incentives . Academy of Management Executive , 18 : 130 – 133 .
   Google Scholar
• Locke , E. A. , Bryan , J. F. and Kendall , L. M. 1968 . Goals and intentions as mediators of the effects of monetary incentives on behavior . Journal of Applied Psychology , 52 : 104 – 121 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Locke , E. A. , Frederick , E. , Buckner , E. and Bobko , P. 1984 . Effects of previously assigned goals on self-set goals and performance . Journal of Applied Psychology , 69 : 694 – 699 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Locke , E. and Latham , G. 1984 . Goal setting: A motivational tool that works , Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Locke , E. A. and Latham , G. P. 1990 . A theory of goal setting and task performance , Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Locke , E. A. and Latham , G. 2002 . Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation . American Psychologist , 57 : 705 – 717 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Locke , E. A. and Latham , G. 2004 . What should we do about motivation theory? Six recommendations for the twenty-first century . Academy of Management Review , 29 : 388 – 403 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Locke , E. and Latham , G. 2009 . Has goal setting gone wild, or have its attackers abandoned good scholarship? . Academy of Management Perspectives , 23 : 17 – 23 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Locke , E. A. , Latham , G. and Erez , M. 1988 . The determinants of goal commitment . Academy of Management Review , 13 : 23 – 39 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Locke , E. A. , Shaw , K. N. , Saari , L. M. and Latham , G. P. 1981 . Goal setting and task performance: 1969–1980 . Psychological Bulletin , 90 : 125 – 152 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , B. and Murberger , B. 1994 . Effects of self-esteem and assigned goals on actual and perceived performance . Journal of Social Behavior & Personality , 9 : 81 – 87 .
   Google Scholar
• Mowen , J. C. , Middlemist , R. D. and Luther , D. 1981 . Joint effects of assigned goal level and incentive structure on task performance: A laboratory study . Journal of Applied Psychology , 66 : 598 – 603 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson , S. and Luthans , F. 2006 . The impact of financial and nonfinancial incentives in business-unit outcomes over time . Journal of Applied Psychology , 91 : 156 – 165 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pilegge , A. J. and Holtz , R. 1997 . The effects of social identity on the self-set goals and task performance of high and low self-esteem individuals . Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes , 70 : 17 – 26 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rawsthorne , L. and Elliot , A. 1999 . Achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A meta-analytic review . Personality & Social Psychology Review , 3 ( 4 ) : 326 – 344 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Riedel , J. A. , Nebeker , D. M. and Cooper , B. L. 1988 . The influence of monetary incentives on goal choice, goal commitment, and task performance . Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes , 42 : 155 – 180 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson , J. and Shaver , P. 1969 . Measures of social psychological attitudes , Ann Arbor , MI : Institute of Social Research .
   Google Scholar
• Rosenberg , M. 1968 . Society and the adolescent self-image , Princeton , NJ : Princeton University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ryan , R. 1982 . Control and information in the intrapersonal: An extension of cognitive evaluation theory . Journal of Personality & Social Psychology , 34 ( 3 ) : 450 – 461 .
   Google Scholar
• Seijts , G. , Latham , G. , Tasa , K. and Latham , B. 2004 . Goal setting, goal orientation: An integration of two different yet related literatures . Academy of Management Journal , 47 ( 2 ) : 227 – 239 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stajkovic , A. and Luthans , F. 2001 . Differential effects of incentive motivators on work performance . Academy of Management Journal , 44 : 580 – 590 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strang , H. 1981 . The effects of challenging goal instructions upon goal setting and performance on a reaction-time task . Journal of Psychology , 107 : 241 – 246 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steers , R. M. and Porter , L. W. 1974 . The role of task-goal attributes in employee performance . Psychological Bulletin , 81 : 434 – 452 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tang , T. and Reynolds , D. 1993 . Effects of self-esteem and perceived goal difficulty on goal setting, certainty, task performance, and attributions . Human Resource Development Quarterly , 4 : 153 – 170 .
   Google Scholar
• Terborg , J. , Richardson , P. and Pritchard , R. 1980 . Person–situation effects in the prediction of performance: An investigation of ability, self-esteem, and reward contingencies . Journal of Applied Psychology , 65 : 574 – 583 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tharenou , P. and Harker , P. 1984 . Moderating influence of self-esteem on relationships between job complexity, performance, and satisfaction . Journal of Applied Psychology , 69 : 623 – 632 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tubbs , M. E. 1986 . Goal-setting: A meta-analytic examination of the empirical evidence . Journal of Applied Psychology , 71 : 474 – 483 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tubbs , M. E. and Ekeberg , S. E. 1991 . The role of intentions in work motivation: Implications for goal-setting theory and research . Academy of Management Review , 16 : 180 – 199 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Uhl-Bien , M. and Graen , G. 1998 . Individual self-management: Analysis of professionals' self-managing activities in functional and cross-functional work teams . Academy of Management Journal , 41 : 340 – 350 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss , H. M. and Adler , S. 1984 . “ Personality and Organizational Behavior ” . In Research in organizational behavior , Edited by: Staw , B. M. and Cummings , L. L. Vol. 6 , 1 – 50 . Greenwich , CT : JAI .
   Google Scholar
• Wood , R. , Atkins , P. and Bright , J. 1999 . Bonuses, goals, and instrumentality effects . Journal of Applied Psychology , 84 : 703 – 720 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright , P. M. 1989 . Test of the mediating role of goals in the incentive-performance relationship . Journal of Applied Psychology , 74 : 699 – 705 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright , P. and Kacmar , K. M. 1995 . Mediating roles of self-set goals, goal commitment, self-efficacy, and attractiveness in the incentives-performance relation . Human Performance , 8 : 263 – 296 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yukl , G. and Latham , G. 1978 . Interrelationships among employee participation, individual differences, goal Difficulty, goal acceptance, goal instrumentality, and performance . Personnel Psychology , 31 : 305 – 323 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar