Organizational Downsizing During an Economic Crisis: Survivors' and Victims' Perspectives

REFERENCES

• Allred , K. G. 1999 . “ Anger and retaliation: Toward an understanding of impassioned conflict in organizations ” . In Research on negotiations in organizations , Edited by: Bies , R. J. , Lewicki , R. J. and Sheppard , B. H. Vol. 7 , 27 – 58 . Greenwich , CT : JAI Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ambrose , M. L. , Seabright , M. A. and Schminke , M. 2002 . Sabotage in the workplace: The role of organizational justice . Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , 89 : 947 – 965 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrews , F. M. , Klem , L. , Davidson , T. N. , O'Malley , P. M and Rodgers , W. L. 1981 . A guide for selecting statistical techniques for analyzing social science data , Ann Arbor , MI : Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan .
   Google Scholar
• Applebaum , S. , Everard , A. and Hung , L. 1999 . Strategic downsizing: Critical success factors . Management Decision , 37 : 535 – 552 .
   Google Scholar
• Aquino , K. , Tripp , T. M. and Bies , R. J. 2001 . How employees respond to personal offense: The effects of blame attribution, victim status, and offender status on revenge and reconciliation in the workplace . Journal of Applied Psychology , 86 : 52 – 59 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Armstrong-Stassen , M. 1994 . Coping with transition: A study of layoff survivors . Journal of Organizational Behavior , 15 : 597 – 621 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron , R. A. and Neuman , J. H. 1998 . Workplace aggression—The iceberg beneath the tip of workplace violence: Evidence of its forms, frequency, and targets . Public Administration Quarterly , 21 : 446 – 464 .
   Google Scholar
• Bateman , T. S. and Snell , S. A. 2009 . Management: Leading and collaborating in a competitive world , Boston , MA : McGraw-Hill Irwin .
   Google Scholar
• Bayer , R. and October . 2000 . “ Termination with dignity ” . In Business Horizons 4 – 10 .
   Google Scholar
• Bettencourt , L. A. and Brown , S. W. 1997 . Contact employees: Relationships among workplace fairness, job satisfaction and prosocial service behaviors . Journal of Retailing , 73 ( 1 ) : 39 – 61 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bies , R. J. and Moag , J. S. 1986 . “ Interactional justice: Communication criteria for fairness ” . In Research on negotiation in organizations , Edited by: Sheppard , B. H. Vol. 1 , 43 – 55 . Greenwich , CT : JAI Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bies , R. J. and Tripp , T. M. 2002 . “ ‘Hot flashes and open wounds’: Injustice and the tyranny of its emotions ” . In Emerging perspectives on managing organizational justice , Edited by: Gilliland , S. W. , Steiner , D. D. and Skarlicki , D. P. 203 – 231 . Greenwich , CT : Information Age Publishing .
   Google Scholar
• Birnbaum , M. H. 2004 . Human research and data collection via the Internet . Annual Review of Psychology , 55 : 803 – 832 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brockner , J. 1990 . Scope of justice in the workplace: How survivors react to co-worker layoff . Journal of Social Issues , 46 : 95 – 106 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brockner , J. , Greenberg , J. , Brockner , A. , Bortz , J. , Davy , J. and Carter , C. 1986 . Layoffs, equity theory, and work performance: Further evidence of the impact of survivor guilt . Academy of Management Journal , 29 : 373 – 384 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brockner , J. , Grover , S. , Reed , T. , DeWitt , R. and O'Malley , M. 1987 . Survivors' reactions to layoffs: We get by with a little help from our friends . Administrative Science Quarterly , 32 : 526 – 541 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brockner , J. and Seigel , P. 1996 . “ Understanding the interaction between procedural and distributive justice ” . In Trust in organizations , Edited by: Kramer , R. M. and Tyler , T. R. 390 – 413 . Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Brotherton , P. 2010 . Warning signs of turnover waiting to happen . T+D , 64 ( 12 ) : 24
   Google Scholar
• Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2009, November 6). Employment situation summary. http://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.nr0.htm (http://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.nr0.htm)
   Google Scholar
• Cameron , K. S. 1994 . Strategies for successful organizational downsizing . Human Resource Management , 33 ( 2 ) : 189 – 211 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cameron , K. S. , Freeman , S. J. and Mishra , A. K. 1991, August . “ Best practices in white-collar downsizing: Managing contradictions ” . In Academy of Management Executive 57 – 73 .
   Google Scholar
• Cascio , W. F. 1993 . Downsizing: What do we know? What have we learned? . Academy of Management Executive , 7 ( 1 ) : 95 – 104 .
   Google Scholar
• Caudron , S. 1996 . Teach downsizing survivors how to thrive . Personnel Journal , 78 ( 1 ) : 38 – 48 .
   Google Scholar
• Cavanaugh , M. A. and Noe , R. A. 1999 . Antecedents and consequences of relational components of the new psychological model . Journal of Organizational Behavior , 20 ( 3 ) : 323 – 340 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Choi , S. 2011 . Organizational justice and employee work attitudes: The federal case . American Review of Public Administration , 41 ( 12 ) : 185 – 204 .
   Google Scholar
• Colquitt , J. A. , Conlon , D. E. , Wesson , M. J. , Porter , C. and Ng , K. Y. 2001 . Justice at the millennium: A meta-analytic review of 25 years of organizational justice research . Journal of Applied Psychology , 86 : 425 – 445 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Courtney , S. 1998 . The impact of trust on employee perceptions of organizational and leader effectiveness , Tempe , AZ : School of Public Affairs, Arizona State University .
   Google Scholar
• Devine , K. , Reay , T. , Stainton , L. and Collins-Nakai , R. 2003 . Downsizing outcomes: Better a victim than a survivor? . Human Resource Management , 42 ( 2 ) : 109 – 124 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dewettinck , K. and Buyens , D. 2002 . Downsizing: Employee threat or opportunity? An empirical study on external and internal reorientation practices in Belgian companies . Employee Relations , 24 ( 4 ) : 389 – 402 .
   Google Scholar
• Dolan , S. , Belout , A. and Balkin , D. B. 2000 . Downsizing without downgrading: Learning how firms manage their survivors . International Journal of Manpower , 21 ( 1 ) : 34 – 46 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dooley , R. S. , Fryxell , G. F. and Judge , W. Q. 2000 . Belaboring the not-so-obvious: Consensus, commitment, and strategy implementation speed and success . Journal of Management , 26 ( 6 ) : 1237 – 1257 .
   Google Scholar
• Edwards , J. , Rust , K. , McKinley , W. and Moon , G. 2003 . Business ideologies and perceived breach of contract during downsizing: The role of the ideology of employee self-reliance . Journal of Organizational Behavior , 24 : 1 – 23 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher , S. R. and White , M. A. 2000 . Downsizing in a learning organization: Are there hidden costs? . Academy of Management Review , 25 : 244 – 251 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fosnaugh, J., Geers, A. L. Wellman, J. A. (2009) Giving off a rosy glow: The manipulation of an optimistic orientation. Journal of Social Psychology, 149 3249–264. http://search.proquest.com/docview/199821548?accountid=10796 (http://search.proquest.com/docview/199821548?accountid=10796)
   Google Scholar
• Freeman , S. J. and Cameron , K. S. 1993 . Organizational downsizing: A convergence and reorientation framework . Organization Science , 4 ( 1 ) : 10 – 29 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gagnon , M. A. , Jansen , K. J. and Judd , H. M. 2008 . Employee alignment with strategic change: A study of strategy supportive behavior among blue-collar employees . Journal of Managerial Issues , 20 ( 4 ) : 425 – 443 .
   Google Scholar
• Gakovic , A. and Tetrick , L. E. 2003 . Psychological contract breach as a source of strain for employees . Journal of Business and Psychology , 18 ( 2 ) : 235 – 246 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gandolfi , F. 2008 . Downsizing executioners and the experience of executing downsizing . Journal of the American Academy of Business, Cambridge , 13 ( 1 ) : 294 – 302 .
   Google Scholar
• Gandolfi , F. 2009 . Where did downsizing go? A review of 30 years of a strategic business phenomenon . Australian Journal of Business and Social Inquiry , 7 ( 1 ) : 40 – 65 .
   Google Scholar
• Gibson , D. E. and Schroeder , S. J. 2003 . Who ought to be blamed? The effect of organizational roles on blame and credit attributions . International Journal of Conflict Management , 14 ( 2 ) : 95 – 117 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gilley , A. , McMillan , H. S. and Gilley , J. W. 2009 . Organizational change and characteristics of leadership effectiveness . Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies , 16 ( 1 ) : 38 – 47 .
   Google Scholar
• Green , K. , Medlin , B. and Whitten , D. 2004 . Developing optimism to improve performance: An approach for the manufacturing sector . Industrial Management and Data Systems , 104 ( 2 ) : 106 – 114 .
   Google Scholar
• Greenberg , J. 1990 . Organizational justice: Yesterday, today, and tomorrow . Journal of Management , 16 ( 2 ) : 399 – 432 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenberg , J. 1993 . “ The social side of fairness: Interpersonal and informational classes of organizational justice ” . In Justice in the workplace: Approaching fairness in human resource management , Edited by: Cropanzano , R. 79 – 103 . Hillsdale , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Greenberg , J. and Lind , E. A. 2000 . “ The pursuit of organizational justice: From conceptualization to implication to application ” . In Industrial and organizational psychology: Linking theory with practice , Edited by: Cooper , C. L. and Locke , E. A. 72 – 108 . Oxford , UK : Blackwell .
   Google Scholar
• Guiniven , J. E. 2001 . The lessons of survivor literature in communication decisions to downsize . Journal of Business and Technical Communication , 15 : 53 – 71 . doi: 10.1177/105065190101500103
   Google Scholar
• Hareli , S. and Tzafrir , S. 2006 . The role of causal attributions in survivors' emotional reactions to downsizing . Human Resource Development Review , 5 ( 4 ) : 400 – 421 .
   Google Scholar
• Hendrix , W. , Robbins , T. , Miller , J. and Summers , T. 1998 . Effects of procedural and distributive justice on factor prediction or turnover . Journal of Social Behavior and Personality , 13 : 611 – 633 .
   Google Scholar
• Hopkins , S. and Weathington , B. 2006 . The relationships between justice perceptions, trust, and employee attitudes in a downsized organization . Journal of Psychology , 140 : 477 – 499 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horvath , M. and Andrews , S. B. 2007 . The role of fairness perceptions and accountability attributions in predicting reactions to organizational events . Journal of Psychology , 141 ( 2 ) : 203 – 222 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inkson , K. and King , Z. 2011 . Contested terrain in careers: A psychological contract model . Human Relations , 64 ( 1 ) : 37 – 57 .
   Google Scholar
• Isabella , L. A. 1989 . Downsizing: Survivors' assessments . Business Horizons , 32 ( 3 ) : 35 – 41 .
   Google Scholar
• Jaffe , D. T. and Scott , C. D. 1998 . “ Rekindling work commitment and effectiveness through a new work contract ” . In The new organizational reality: Downsizing, restructuring, and revitalization , Edited by: Gowing , M. K , Kraft , J. D. and Quick , J. C. 185 – 205 . Washington , DC : American Psychological Association .
   Google Scholar
• Jensen , S. , Luthans , K. , Lebsack , S. and Lebsack , R. 2007 . Optimism and employee performance in the banking industry . Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship , 12 ( 3 ) : 57 – 72 .
   Google Scholar
• Kets de Vries , M. and Balazs , K. 1997 . The downside of downsizing . Human Relations , 50 ( 1 ) : 11 – 50 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilpatrick , A. 1999 . When in doubt, don't: Alternatives to downsizing . Management , 2 : 209 – 219 .
   Google Scholar
• Kim , H. 2009 . Examining the role of informational justice in the wake of downsizing for an organizational relationship management perspective . Journal of Business Ethics , 88 : 297 – 312 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kivimaki , M. , Vahtera , J. , Pentti , J. , Thomson , L. , Griffiths , A. and Cox , T. 2001 . Downsizing changes in work, and self-rated health of employees: A 7-year 3-wave panel study . Anxiety, Stress, and Coping , 14 : 59 – 79 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Konovsky , M. A. and Folger , R. 1991 . The Effects of procedures, social accounts, and benefits level on victims' layoff reactions . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 21 : 630 – 650 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leana , C. and Ivancevich , J. 1987 . Involuntary job loss: Institutional interventions and a research agenda . Academy of Management Review , 12 : 301 – 312 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lind , E. , Greenberg , J. , Scott , K. and Welchans , T. 2000 . The winding road for employee complainant: Situational and psychological determinants of wrongful termination claims . Administrative Science Quarterly , 45 ( 3 ) : 557 – 590 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luthans , F. 2002 . Positive organizational behavior: Developing and managing psychological strengths . Academy of Management Executive , 16 ( 1 ) : 57 – 75 .
   Google Scholar
• Medlin , B. and Green , K. Jr. 2008 . The relationship among goal setting, optimism, and engagement: the impact on employee performance . Allied Academies International Conference, Academy of Organizational Culture, Communications and Conflict Proceedings , 13 ( 1 ) : 51 – 57 .
   Google Scholar
• Mishra , A. and Spreitzer , G. 1998 . Explaining how survivors respond to downsizing: The roles of trust, empowerment, justice, and work redesign . Academy of Management Review , 23 : 567 – 589 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mishra , K. E. , Spreitzer , G. M. and Mishra , A. K. 1998, Winter . “ Preserving employee morale during downsizing ” . In Sloan Management Review 83 – 95 .
   Google Scholar
• Morrison , E. and Robinson , S. 1997 . When employees feel betrayed: A model of how psychological contract violation develops . Academy of Management Review , 22 ( 1 ) : 226 – 256 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Noble , C. H. and Mokwa , M. P. 1999 . Implementing marketing strategies: Developing and testing a managerial theory . Journal of Marketing , 63 : 57 – 73 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orpen , C. 1993 . “ Correlations between job insecurity and psychological well-being among white and black employees in South Africa ” . In Perceptual and Motor Skills, 76(3 Pt 1) 885 – 886 .
   Google Scholar
• Peale , N. V. 1956 . The power of positive thinking , Englewood Cliffs , NJ : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Perry , R. W. and Mankin , L. 2004 . Understanding employee trust in management . Public Personnel Management , 33 : 277 – 290 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pillutla , M. M. and Murnighan , J. K. 1996 . Unfairness, anger, and spite: Emotional rejections of ultimatum offers . Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , 68 : 208 – 224 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pugh , S. , Skarlicki , D. and Passel , B. 2003 . After the fall: Layoff victims' trust and cynicism in re-employment . Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology , 76 : 201 – 223 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rhodes , S. D. , Bowie , S. D. and Hergenrather , K. C. 2003 . Collecting behavioral data using the World Wide Web: Considerations for researchers . Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health , 57 ( 1 ) : 68 – 73 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rich , G. 1999 . Salesperson optimism: Can sales managers enhance it and so what if they do? . Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice , 7 ( 1 ) : 53 – 63 .
   Google Scholar
• Robinson , S. L. 1996 . Trust and breach of the psychological contract . Administrative Science Quarterly , 41 : 574 – 599 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rousseau , D. M. 1989 . Psychological and implied contract in organizations . Employee Responsibility and Rights Journal , 2 : 121 – 139 .
   Google Scholar
• Rousseau , D. M. 1995 . Psychological contracts in organizations: Understanding written and unwritten agreements , Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Rousseau , D. M. and Wade-Benzoni , K. A. 1994 . Linking strategy and human resource practices: How employee and customer service contracts are created . Human Resource Management , 33 ( 3 ) : 463 – 490 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rust , K. , McKinley , W. , Moon , G. and Edwards , J. 2005 . Ideological foundations of perceived contract breach associated with downsizing: An empirical investigation . Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies , 12 : 37 – 53 .
   Google Scholar
• Schwieger , D. and Ivancevich , J. 1987 . Executive actions for managing human resources before and after acquisitions . Academy of Management Executive , 1 : 127 – 137 .
   Google Scholar
• Seligman , M. 1990 . Learned optimism , New York , NY : Knopf .
   Google Scholar
• Skarlicki , D. P. , Barclay , L. J. and Pugh , S. D. 2008 . When explanations for layoff are not enough: Employer's integrity as a moderator of the relationship between informational justice and retaliation . Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology , 81 : 123 – 146 . doi: 1031348/096317907X206848
   Google Scholar
• Spreitzer , G. and Mishra , A. 2002 . To stay or go: Voluntary survivor turnover following an organizational downsizing . Journal of Organizational Behavior , 23 : 49 – 58 .
   Google Scholar
• Sronce , R. and McKinley , W. 2006 . Perceptions of organizational downsizing . Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies , 12 : 89 – 109 .
   Google Scholar
• Teigen , K. H. 1997 . Luck, envy, and gratitude: It could have been different . Scandinavian Journal of Psychology , 38 : 313 – 323 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tourish , D. , Paulsen , N. , Hobman , E. and Bordia , P. 2004 . The downsides of downsizing: Communication processes and information needs in the aftermath of a workforce reduction strategy . Management Communication Quarterly , 17 ( 4 ) : 485 – 513 . doi: 10.1177/0893318903262241
   Google Scholar
• Towers Watson. (2010) The new employment deal: How far, how fast and how enduring? http://www.towerswatson.com/united-states/events/12605/1 (http://www.towerswatson.com/united-states/events/12605/1)
   Google Scholar
• Tzafrir , S. , Nano-Negrin , R. , Harel , G. and Rom-Nagy , D. 2006 . Downsizing and the impact of job counseling and retraining on effective employee responses . Career Development International , 11 ( 2 ) : 125 – 144 .
   Google Scholar
• Uchitelle , L. 2006 . The disposable American: Layoffs and their consequences , New York , NY : Random House .
   Google Scholar
• Wanberg , C. R. and Banas , J. T. 2000 . Predictors and outcomes of openness to changes in a reorganizing workplace . Journal of Applied Psychology , 85 : 132 – 143 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Watson Wyatt. (2009) Watson Wyatt's WorkUSA identifies steps to keep employees engaged, productive in a downturn. http://www.watsonwyatt.com/news/press.asp?ID=20559 (http://www.watsonwyatt.com/news/press.asp?ID=20559)
   Google Scholar
• Weiner , B. 1985 . An attributional theory of achievement and motivation . Psychological Review , 92 : 548 – 573 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiner , B. 1986 . An attributional theory of motivation and emotion , New York , NY : Springer-Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Weiner , B. 1995 . Judgments of responsibility: A foundation for a theory of social conduct , New York , NY : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Weiner , B. , Russell , D. and Lerman , D. 1978 . “ Affective consequences of causal ascriptions ” . In New directions for attribution research , Edited by: Harvey , J. H. , Ickes , W. J. and Kidd , R. F. 59 – 90 . Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Weiner , B. , Frieze , I. , Kukla , A. , Reed , L. , Rest , S. and Rosenbaum , R. 1971 . “ Perceiving the causes of success and failure ” . In Attribution: Perceiving the causes of behavior , Edited by: Jones , E. E. , Kanouse , D. , Kelley , H. H. , Nisbett , R. E. , Valins , S. and Weiner , B. 95 – 120 . New York , NY : General Learning Press .
   Google Scholar