Emission Factors for Gases and Particle-Bound Substances Produced by Firing Lead-Free Small-Caliber Ammunition

REFERENCES

• Heier, L-S., I.B. Lien, A.E. Strømseng, et al.: Speciation of lead, copper, zinc and antimony in water draining a shooting range—Time dependent metal accumulation and biomarker responses in brown trout (Salmo trutta L.). Sci. Total Env. 407:4047–4055 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ochsmann E., T. Göen, K-H. Schaller, and H. Drexler: Lead—Still a health threat for marksmen. Int. J. Hyg. Envir. Heal. 212:557–561 (2009).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Svensson B-G., A. Schütz, A. Nilsson, and S. Skerfving: Lead exposure in indoor firing ranges. Int. Arch. Occ. Env. Heal. 64:219–221 (1992).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Research Council (NRC). Potential Health Risks to DOD Firing-Range Personnel from Recurrent Lead Exposure. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2012.
   Google Scholar
• Norwegian Defence Research Establishment:Health Problems Associated with the Use of HK416 - Assessment of Causes and Health Risks, by A.E. Strømseng, Ø.A. Voie, A. Johnsen, et al. (Report 2009/00820). Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, 2009.
   Google Scholar
• Ase P., W. Eisenberg, S. Gordon, K. Taylor, and A. Snelson: Propellant combustion product analyses on an M16 Rifle and a 105 mm caliber gun. J. Environ. Sci. Heal. A A20:337–368 (1985).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Defence Research and Development Canada:Characterization of Atmospheric Emissions Produced by Live Gun Firing: Test on the M777 155 mm Howitzer, by B. Quémerais, E. Diaz, I. Poulin, and A. Marois. . (TR 2007-102). Defence Research and Development Canada, . October 2007.
   Google Scholar
• Swedish Defence Research Agency:Health Effects of Combustion Products and Metallic Dust from Small Calibre Ammunition, by S. Hedenstierna, R. Berglind, L. Hägglund, J. Ottosson, M. Skoglund, and H. Wingfors . (FOI R3080-SE). Swedish Defence Research Agency, . December 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Palmer W.G., A.W. Andrews, D. Mellini, J.A. Terra, F.J. Hoffmann, S.H. Hoke: Mutagenicity of particulate emissions from the M16 rifle: Variation with particle size. J. Toxicol. Env. Health 42:423–433 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy, I.M.: The health effects of combustion-generated aerosols. Proc. of the Comb. Inst. 31:2757–2770 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller R.M., C.A. Shaw, and J.P. Langrish: From particles to patients: Oxidative stress and the cardiovascular effects of air pollution. Future Cardiol. 8:577–602 (2012).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hays, M.D., and R.J. Lavrich: Developments in direct thermal extraction gas chromatography-mass spectrometry of fine aerosols. Trends Anal. Chem. 26:88–102 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chow, J.C., J.Z. Yu, J.G. Watson, et al.:The application of thermal methods for determining chemical composition of carbonaceous aerosols: A review. J. Environ. Sci. Heal. 42:1521–1541 (2007).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Orasche J., J. Schnelle-Kreis, G. Abbaszade, and R. Zimmermann: In-situ derivatization thermal desorption GC-TOFMS for direct analysis of particle-bound non-polar and polar organic species. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 11:8977–8993 (2011).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fushimi A., S. Hashimoto, T. Ieda, et al.:Thermal desorption - Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry for determination of trace polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their derivatives. J. Chromatogr. A. 1252:164–170 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moxnes J.F., T.L. Jensen, E. Smestad, E. Unneberg, and O. Dullum: Lead free ammunition without toxic propellant gases. Propellants Explos. Pyrotech. 38:255–260 (2013).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Magnusson R., and C. Nilsson: The influence of oxygenated fuels on emissions of aldehydes and ketones from a two-stroke spark ignition engine. Fuel 90:1145–1154 (2011).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qvarfort, U.P. Leffler, and J. Sjöström:White Paper: Lead in Target Butts. Stockholm: . Swedish Pistol Shooting Association, 2008. . (in Swedish)
   Google Scholar
• Bogard J.S., K.L. Yuracko, M.E Murray, R.A. Lowden, and N.L Vaughn: Application of life cycle analysis: The case of green bullets. . Eviron. Man. and Heal. 10: 282–289 (1999).
   Google Scholar
• Scott, E.E., N. Pavelchak, and R. De Persis: Impact of housekeeping on lead exposure in indoor law enforcement shooting ranges. J. Occup. Environ. Hyg. 9:D45–51 (2012).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klaassen, C.D.: Casarett and Doull′s Toxicology. The Basic Science of Poisons. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001.
   Google Scholar
• International Agency for Research in Cancer (IARC):Formaldehyde, 2-butoxyethanol and 1-tertbutoxypropan- 2-ol. IARC Monogr. Eval. Carcinog. Risks Hum. 88:1–478 (2006)
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jomova, K., S. Baros, and M. Valko: Redox active metal-induced oxidative stress in biological systems. Transit. Metal Chem. 37:127–134 (2012).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham, J.L., D.L. Hall, and B. Dellinger: Laboratory investigation of thermal degradation of amixture of hazardous organic compounds. Environ. Sci. Technol. 20:703–710 (1986).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cropek, D.M., P.A. Kemme, J.M. Day, and J. Cochran: Use of pyrolysis GC/MS for predicting emission byproducts from incineration of double-base propellant. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36:4346–4351 (2002).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simoneit, B.R.T: Biomass burning—A review of organic tracers for smoke from incomplete combustion. Appl. Geochem. 17:129–162 (2002).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sovadinova, I., L. Blaha, J. Janosek, et al.: Cytotoxicity and aryl hydrocarbon receptor-mediated activity of N-heterocyclic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Structure-activity relationships. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 25:1291–1297 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar