Effects of Temperature, Humidity and Air Flow on Fungal Growth Rate on Loaded Ventilation Filters

REFERENCES

• Simmons, R.B., D.L. Price, J.A. Noble, S.A. Crow, and D.G. Ahearn: Fungal colonization of air filters from hospitals. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 58(12):900–904 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Price, D.L., R.B. Simmons, S.A. Crow, Jr., and D.G. Ahearn: Mold colonization during use of preservative-treated and untreated air filters, including HEPA filters from hospitals and commercial locations over an 8-year period (1996–2003). J. Ind. Microbiol. Biot. 32(7):319–321 (2005).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahearn, D.G., S.A. Crow, D.L. Price, S.K. Mishra, and D.L. Pierson: Fungal colonization of air filters and insulation in a multi-story office building: production of volatile organics. Curr. Microbiol. 35(5):305–308 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burge, H.A., and Otten, J.: Chapter 19. In Bioaerosols: Assessment and Control. Cincinnati, Ohio: ACGIH, 1999.
   Google Scholar
• Maus, R., A. Goppelsröder, and H. Umhauer: Survival of bacterial and mold spores in air filter media. Atmos. Environ. 35(1):105–113 (2001).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuehn, T.H., D.Y.H. Pui, D. Vesley, et al.: Matching Filtration to Health Requirements. ASHRAE RP625 Final Report, phase 2, The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (1994).
   Google Scholar
• Pasanen, A.-L., M. Nikulin, S. Berg, and E.-L. Hintikka: Stachybotrys Atra Corda may produce mycotoxins in respirator filters in humid environments. Am. Ind. Hygiene Assoc. J. 55(1):62–65 (1994).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Möritz, M., H. Peters, B. Nipko, and H. Rüden: Capability of air filters to retain airborne bacteria and molds in heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. Int. J. Hygine Envir. Health 203(5–6:401–409 (2001).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simmons, R.B., and S.A. Crow: Fungal colonization of air filters for use in heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. J. Ind. Microbiol. 14(1:41–45 (1995).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gustavsson, J.: Why we need effective air filtration. Filtrat. Separ. 39(3:14–17 (2002).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kemp, P.C., H.G. Neumeister-Kemp, G. Lysek, and F. Murray: Survival and growth of micro-organisms on air filtration media during initial loading. Atmos. Environ. 35(28:4739–4749 (2001).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kemp, S.J., T.H. Kuehn, D.Y.H. Pui, D. Vesley, and A.J. Streifel: Filter collection efficiency and growth of microorganisms on filters loaded with outdoor air. ASHRAE Trans. 101(part 1:228–238 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Pejtersen, J.: Sensory pollution and microbial contamination of ventilation filters. Indoor Air 64:239–248 (1996).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kemp, S.J., T.H. Kuehn, D.Y.H. Pui, D. Vesley, and A.J. Streifel: Growth of microorganisms on HVAC filters under controlled temperature and humidity conditions. ASHRAE Trans. 101(part 1):305–316 (1995).
   Google Scholar
• Corry, J.E.L.: Relationships of Water Activity to Fungal Growth. In Food and Beverage Mycology, L.R. Beuchat (ed.). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc., 1987. pp. 51–88.
   Google Scholar
• Adan, O.C.G.: “On the Fungal Defacement of Interior Finishes.” Ph.D. thesis, University of Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 1994.
   Google Scholar
• Viitanen, H.: Modelling the time factor in the development of mould fungi - the effect of critical humidity and temperature conditions on pine and spruce sapwood. Int. J. Biol. Chem. Phys. Technol. Wood 51(1:6–14 (1997).
   Google Scholar
• Li, A., Z. Liu, Y. Liu, X. Xu, and Y. Pu: Experimental study on microorganism ecological distribution and contamination mechanism in supply air ducts. Ener. Build. 47:497–505 (2012).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirsch, D.J., S.R. Hirsch, and J.H. Kalbfleisch: Effects of central air conditioning and meteorological factors on indoor spore counts. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 62:22–26 (1978).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mishra, S.K., L. Ajello, D.G. Ahearn, H.A. Burge, V.P. Kurup, D.L. Pierson, et al.: Environmental mycology and its importance to public health. J. Med. Vet. Mycol. 30(S1):287–305 (1992).
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rogers, C.A.: Indoor fungal exposure. Immunol. Allergy Clin. North Am. 23(3):501–518 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hocking, A.D., B.F. Miscamble, and J.I. Pitt: Water relations of Alternaria alternata, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Cladosporium sphaerospermum, Curvularia lunata and Curvularia pallescens. Mycol. Res. 98(1):91–94 (1994).
   Google Scholar
• American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE): Standard 52.2-1999 - Method of Testing General Ventilation Air-Cleaning Devices for Removal Efficiency by Particle Size (ANSI approved).
   Google Scholar
• Tang, W., M.A. Ramakrishnan, S. Goyal, and T. Kuehn: Measurement of bioaerosol filtration efficiency in an ASHRAE 52.2 filter test facility. Filtration 7:40–44 (2007).
   Google Scholar
• Tang, W.: Effects of temperature, relative humidity, and air flow on microbial growth on loaded ventilation filters. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 2008.
   Google Scholar
• Weete, J.D.: Structure and function of sterols in fungi. Adv. Lipid. Res. 23:115–167 (1989).
   Google Scholar
• Grant, W.D., and A.W. West: Measurement of ergosterol, diaminopimelic acid and glucosamine in soils: evaluation as indicators of microbial biomass. J. Microbiol. Meth. 6(1:47–53 (1986).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Axelsson, B.-O., A. Saraf, and L. Larsson: Determination of ergosterol in organic dust by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. B 666(1:77–84 (1995).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saraf, A., L. Larsson, H. Burge, and D. Milton: Quantification of ergosterol and 3-hydroxy fatty acids in settled house dust by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry: comparison with fungal culture and determination of endotoxin by a Limulus amebocyte lysate assay. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63(7:2554–2559 (1997).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nielsen, K.F., and J.L. Madsen: Determination of ergosterol on mouldy building materials using isotope dilution and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. A 898(2):227–234 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pasanen, A.-L., K. Yli-Pietilä, P. Pasanen, P. Kalliokoski, and J. Tarhanen: Ergosterol content in various fungal species and biocontaminated building materials. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65(1):138–142 (1999).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Szponar, B., and L. Larsson: Determination of microbial colonisation in water-damaged buildings using chemical marker analysis by gas chromatography – mass spectrometry. Indoor Air 10(1):13–18 (2000).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reeslev, M., M. Miller, and K.F. Nielsen: Quantifying mold biomass on gypsum board: Comparison of ergosterol and beta-n-acetylhexosaminidase as mold biomass parameters. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69(7):3996–3998 (2003).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newell, S.Y.: Estimating fungal biomass and productivity in decomposing litter. In The Fungal Community: Its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem. G.C. Carroll, and D.T. Wicklow (eds.). New York: Marcel Dekker, 1992. pp. 521–561.
   Google Scholar
• Newell, S.Y., J.D. Miller, and R.D. Fallon: Ergosterol content of salt marsh fungi: effect of growth conditions and mycelial age. Mycologia 79(5):688–695 (1987).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mille-Lindblom, C., E.vonWachenfeldt, and L.J. Tranvik: Ergosterol as a measure of living fungal biomass: persistence in environmental samples after fungal death. J. Microbiol. Meth. 59(2):253–262 (2004).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newell, S.Y., T.L. Arsuffi, and R.D. Fallon: Fundamental procedures for determining ergosterol content of decaying plant material by liquid chromatography. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54(7):1876–1879 (1988).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, P., C.M. Davidson, D. Littlejohn, A.M. Ure, C.A. Shand, and M.V. Cheshire: Extraction of ergosterol from peaty soils and determination by high performance liquid chromatography. Talanta 41(5):711–720 (1994).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dong, Y., B. Steffenson, and C.J. Mirocha: Analysis of ergosterol in single kernel and ground grain by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Agric. Food Chem. 54(12):4121–4125 (2006).
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lau, A.P.S., J.Y.W. Cheng, and M. Fang: Ergosterol- Conversion Factor for Estimating Fungal Concentration in Ambient Aerosols. In Proceedings of the 7th International Aerosol Conference, St. Paul, MN, 2006. pp. 953–954
   Google Scholar
• Brown, W.: On the Germination and Growth of Fungi at Various Temperatures and in Various Concentrations of Oxygen and of Carbon Dioxide. In Annals of Botany , J. S. Heslop-Harrison (ed.). Vol.12, 1922. pp. 257–283.
   Google Scholar
• Pasanen, A.-L., J.-P. Kasanen, S. Rautiala, et al.: Fungal growth and survival in building materials under fluctuating moisture and temperature conditions. Int. Biodeter. Biodegr. 46(2):117–127 (2000).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar