What Doesn't Go Without Saying: Communication, Induction, and Exploration

REFERENCES

• Ammon , M. 1980 . Development in the linguistic expression of causal relations: Comprehension of features of lexical and periphrastic causatives , Berkeley , CA : Unpublished dissertation, University of California .
   Google Scholar
• Amsterlaw , J. and Wellman , H. 2006 . Theories of mind in transition: A microgenetic study of the development of false belief understanding . Journal of Cognition & Development , 7 : 139 – 172 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Asch , S. 1952 . Social psychology , New York , NY : Prentice-Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Baillargeon , R. , Scott , R. and He , Z. 2010 . False-belief understanding in infants . Trends in Cognitive Sciences , 14 : 110 – 118 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baum , L. , Danovitch , J. and Keil , F. 2006 . Children's sensitivity to circular explanations . Journal of Experimental Psychology , 100 : 146 – 155 .
   Google Scholar
• Behrend , D. A. 1990 . The development of verb concepts: Children's use of verbs to label familiar and novel events . Child Development , 61 : 681 – 696 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berlyne , D. E. 1954 . A theory of human curiosity . British Journal of Psychology , 45 : 180 – 191 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Birch , S. , Vauthier , S. and Bloom , P. 2004 . Three- and four-year-olds spontaneously use others' past performance to guide their learning . Cognition , 107 : 1018 – 1034 .
   Google Scholar
• Blaisdell , A. P. , Sawa , K. , Leising , K. J. and Waldmann , M. R. 2006 . Causal reasoning in rats . Science , 311 : 1020 – 1022 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonawitz , E. , Fischer , A. and Schulz , E. in press . Teaching three-and-a-half year olds to reason about ambiguous evidence . Journal of Cognition and Development ,
   Google Scholar
• Bonawitz , E. , Ferranti , D. , Horowitz , A. and Schulz , L.E. 2009 . “ The block makes it go: Causal language helps toddlers integrate prediction, action, and expectations about contact relations ” . In 30th Annual Proceedings of the Cognitive Science Society
   Google Scholar
• Bonawitz , E. , Ferranti , D. , Saxe , R. , Gopnik , A. , Meltzoff , A. , Woodward , J. and Schulz , L. 2010 . Just do it? Investigating the gap between prediction and action in toddlers' causal inference . Cognition , 115 : 104 – 117 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bonawitz , E. , Shafto , P. , Gweon , H. , Goodman , N. , Spelke , E. and Schulz , L. E. in press . The double-edged sword of pedagogy: Teaching limits children's spontaneous exploration and discovery . Cognition ,
   Google Scholar
• Bowerman , M. 1982 . Evaluating competing linguistic models with language acquisition data: Implications of developmental errors with causative verbs . Quaderni di Semantica , 3 : 5 – 66 .
   Google Scholar
• Bullock , M. , Gelman , R. and Baillargeon , R. 1982 . “ The development of causal reasoning ” . In The developmental psychology of time , Edited by: Friedman , W. F. 209 – 254 . New York , NY : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bunger , A. 2008 . How we learn to talk about events: Linguistic and conceptual constraints on verb learning . Language Acquisition , 15 : 69 – 71 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Callanan , M. and Oakes , L. 1992 . Preschoolers' questions and parents' explanation: Causal thinking in everyday activity . Cognitive Development , 7 : 213 – 233 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carey , S. 2009 . The origin of concepts , New York , NY : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Casasola , M. and Cohen , L. B. 2000 . Infants' associations of linguistic labels with causal actions . Developmental Psychology , 36 ( 2 ) : 155 – 168 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , Z. and Klahr , D. 1999 . All other things being equal: Acquisition and transfer of the control of variables strategy . Child Development , 70 : 1098 – 1120 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chi , M. , Bassok , M. , Lewis , M. , Reimann , P. and Glaser , R. 1989 . Self-explanations: How students study and use examples in learning to solve problems . Cognitive Science , 13 : 145 – 182 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chi , M. , de Leeuw , N. , Chiu , M. and LaVancher , C. 1994 . Eliciting self-explanations improves understanding . Cognitive Science , 18 : 439 – 477 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chouinard , M. 2007 . Children's questions: A mechanism for cognitive development . Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development , 72
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , L. and Oakes , L. 1993 . How infants perceive a simple causal event . Developmental Psychology , 29 : 421 – 433 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook , C. , Bonawitz , E. and Schulz , L. 2010 . Inference in a social context: What social and nonsocial reasoning have to teach each other , TX : Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Cognitive Development Society, San Antonio .
   Google Scholar
• Cook , C. , Goodman , N. and Schulz , L. in press . Where science starts: Spontaneous experiments in preschoolers' exploratory play . Cognition ,
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Corriveau , K. and Harris , P. 2009 . Choosing your informant: Weighing familiarity and recent accuracy . Developmental Science , 12 : 426 – 437 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crowley , K. and Siegler , R. 1999 . Explanation and generalization in young children's strategy learning . Child Development , 70 : 304 – 316 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Csibra , G. and Gergely , G. 2009 . Natural pedagogy . Trends in Cognitive Science , 13 : 148 – 153 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cycowicz , Y. , Friedman , D. , Snodgrass , J. and Duff , M. 2001 . Recognition and source memory for pictures in children and adults . Neuropsychologia , 39 : 255 – 267 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Villiers , P. 2005 . “ The role of language in theory of mind development: What deaf children tell us ” . In Why language matters for theory of mind , Edited by: Astington , J. and Baird , J. New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• de Villiers , J. and Pyers , J. 2002 . Complements to cognition: A longitudinal study of the relationship between complex syntax and false-belief-understanding . Cognitive Development , 17 : 1037 – 1060 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Villiers , P. , Burns , F. and Zurer Pearson , B. 2003 . “ The role of language in the theory of mind development of language-impaired children: Complementing theories ” . In BUCLD 27: Proceedings of the 27th Boston University Conference on Language Development , Somerville , MA : Cascadilla Press .
   Google Scholar
• de Villiers , P. and Pyers , J. 2001 . “ Complementation and false belief representation ” . In Research on Child Language Acquisition: Proceedings of the 8th Conference of the International Association for the Study of Child Language , Edited by: Almgren , M. , Barrena , A. , Ezeizabarrena , M-J. , Idiazabal , I. and MacWhinney , B. Somerville , MA : Cascadilla Press .
   Google Scholar
• Dunbar , K. and Klahr , D. 1989 . “ Developmental differences in scientific discovery strategies ” . In Complex information processing: The impact of Herbert A. Simon. Proceedings of the 21st Carnegie Mellon Symposium on Cognition , Edited by: Klahr , D. and Kotovsky , K. 109 – 144 . Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Dunn , J. and Brown , J. 1993 . Early conversations about causality: Contents, pragmatics, and developmental change . British Journal of Developmental Psychology , 11 : 107 – 123 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Estes , W. 1948 . Discriminative conditioning. II. Effects of a Pavlovian conditioned stimulus upon a subsequently established operant response . Journal of Experimental Psychology , 38 : 173 – 177 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fausey , C. and Boroditsky , L. 2009 . How preschoolers integrate linguistic and nonlinguistic information when reasoning about causal agents , Denver , CO : Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development .
   Google Scholar
• Ferguson , S. , Hashtroudi , S. and Johnson , M. 1992 . Age differences in using source-relevant cues . Psychology and Aging , 7 : 443 – 452 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher , C. 1996 . Structural limits on verb mapping: The role of analogy in children's interpretations of sentences . Cognitive Psychology , 31 : 41 – 81 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher , C. 2002 . Structural limits on verb mapping: The role of abstract structure in 2.5-year-olds' interpretations of novel verbs . Developmental Science , 5 : 55 – 64 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frazier , B. , Gelman , S. and Wellman , H. 2009 . Preschoolers' search for explanatory information within adult-child conversation . Child Development , 80 : 1592 – 1611 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gentner , D. 1978 . On relational meaning: The acquisition of verb meaning . Child Development , 49 : 988 – 998 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gergely , G. , Bekkering , H. and Király , I. 2002 . Rational imitation in preverbal infants . Nature , 415 : 755
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gopnik , A. and Astington , J. 1988 . Children's understanding of representational change and its relation to the understanding of false belief and the appearance-reality distinction . Child Development , 59 : 26 – 37 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gopnik , A. , Glymour , C. , Sobel , D. , Schulz , L. E. , Kushnir , T. and Danks , D. 2004 . A theory of causal learning in children: Causal maps and Bayes nets . Psychological Review , 111 : 1 – 31 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gopnik , A. and Nazzi , T. 2003 . “ Words, kinds, and causal powers: A theory perspective on early naming and categorization ” . In Early category and concept development: Making sense of the blooming, buzzing confusion , Edited by: Rakison , D. and Oakes , L. Vol. xxi , 303 – 329 . New York , NY : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gopnik , A. and Sobel , D. M. 2000 . Detecting blickets: How young children use information about causal properties in categorization and induction . Child Development , 71 : 1205 – 1222 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hale , C. and Tager-Flusberg , H. 2003 . Social communication in children wit autism: The relationship between theory of mind and discourse development . Autism , 9 : 157 – 178 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hare , B. , Call , J. , Agnetta , B. and Tomasello , M. 2000 . Chimpanzees know what conspecifics do and do not see . Animal Behaviour , 59 : 771 – 786 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris , P. L. 2002 . “ What do children learn from testimony? ” . In The cognitive basis of science , Edited by: Carruthers , P. , Stitch , S. and Siegal , M. 316 – 334 . Cambridge , , England : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Harris , P. L. and Koenig , M. A. 2006 . Trust in testimony: How children learn about science and religion . Child Development , 77 : 505 – 524 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris , P. L. , de Rosnay , M. and Pons , F. 2005 . Language and children's understanding of mental states . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 14 : 69 – 73 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hickling , A. and Wellman , H. 2001 . The emergence of children's causal explanations and theories: Evidence from everyday conversation . Developmental Psychology , 37 : 668 – 683 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hitchcock, Christopher, “Probabilistic Causation”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 1997 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (Ed.). http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall1997/entries/causation-probabilistic/ (http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall1997/entries/causation-probabilistic/)
   Google Scholar
• Hood , L. and Bloom , L. 1979 . What, when, and how about why: A longitudinal study of early expressions of causality . Monographs for the Society for Research in Child Development , 44
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inagaki , K. and Hatano , G. 1993 . Young children's understanding of the mind-body distinction . Child Development , 64 : 1534 – 1549 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Inagaki , K. and Hatano , G. 2002 . Young children's thinking about the biological world , New York , NY : Psychology Press .
   Google Scholar
• Inhelder , B. and Piaget , J. 1958 . The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence , New York , NY : Basic Books .
   Google Scholar
• Jaswal , V. and Neely , L. 2006 . Adults don't always know best: Preschoolers use past reliability over age when learning new words . Psychological Science , 17 : 757 – 758 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson , M. , Hashtroudi , S. and Lindsay , D. 1993 . Source monitoring . Psychological Bulletin , 114 : 3 – 28 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelemen , D. , Callanan , M. , Casler , K. and Perez-Granados , D. 2005 . Why things happen: Teleological explanation in parent-child conversations . Developmental Psychology , 41 : 251 – 264 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klahr , D. and Nigam , M. 2004 . The equivalence of learning paths in early science instruction: Effects of direct instruction and discovery learning . Psychological Science , 15 : 661 – 667 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koenig , M. , Clement , F. and Harris , P. 2004 . Trust in testimony: Children's use of true and false statements . Psychological Science , 10 : 694 – 698 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koenig , M. and Harris , P. 2005 . The role of social cognition in early trust . Trends in Cognitive Science , 9 : 457 – 459 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koslowski , B. 1996 . Theory and evidence: The development of scientific reasoning , Cambridge , MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kuhn , D. 1989 . Children and adults as intuitive scientists . Psychological Review , 96 : 674 – 689 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuhn , D. , Amsel , E. and O'Laughlin , M. 1988 . The development of scientific thinking skills , Orlando , FL : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kushnir , T. and Gopnik , A. 2005 . Children infer causal strength from probabilities and interventions . Psychological Science , 16 : 678 – 683 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kushnir , T. and Gopnik , A. 2007 . Conditional probability versus spatial contiguity in causal learning: Preschoolers use new contingency evidence to overcome prior spatial assumptions . Developmental Psychology , 44 : 186 – 196 .
   Google Scholar
• Lagattuta , K. and Wellman , H. 2001 . Thinking about the past: Early knowledge about links between prior experience, thinking, and emotion . Child Development , 72 : 82 – 102 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Legare , C. in press . Exploring explanation: Explaining inconsistent information guides hypothesis-testing behavior in young children . Child Development ,
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Legare , C. , Gelman , S. and Wellman , H. 2010 . Inconsistency with prior knowledge triggers children's causal explanatory reasoning . Child Development , 81 : 929 – 944 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Legare , C. , Wellman , H. and Gelman , S. 2009 . Evidence for an explanation advantage in naïve biological reasoning . Cognitive Psychology , 58 : 177 – 194 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leising , K. J. , Wong , J. , Waldmann , M. R. and Blaisdell , A. P. 2008 . The special status of actions in causal reasoning in rats . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 137 : 514 – 527 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leslie , A. and Keeble , S. 1987 . Do six-month-old infants perceive causality? . Cognition , 25 : 265 – 288 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lewis , D. 1973 . Causation . Philosophical Papers , 2 : 159 – 213 .
   Google Scholar
• Lohmann , H. and Tomasello , M. 2003 . The role of language in the development of false belief understanding: A training study . Child Development , 74 : 1130 – 1144 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lombrozo , T. 2009 . Explanation and categorization: How “why?” informs “what?” . Cognition , 110 : 248 – 253 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McIntyre , J. and Craik , F. 1987 . Age differences in memory for item and source information . Canadian Journal of Psychology , 31 : 175 – 192 .
   Google Scholar
• Meltzoff , A. 2007 . “ Infants' causal learning: Intervention, observation, imitation ” . In Causal learning: Psychology, philosophy, and computation , Edited by: Gopnik , A. and Schulz , L. 37 – 47 . Oxford , , England : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Mercier , H. and Sperber , D. 2011 . Why do humans reason? Arguments for an argumentative theory . Behavioral and Brain Sciences , 34 : 57 – 111 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muentener , P. , Bonawitz , E. , Horowitz , A. and Schulz , E. 2010 . From prediction to expectations of contact causality: Causal language and dispositional agency facilitate toddlers' causal representations , Rovereto , , Italy : Poster presented at the 2nd Annual Workshop on Cognition and Evolution .
   Google Scholar
• Muentener , P. 2009 . The origin and development of causal reasoning. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation) , Cambridge , MA : Harvard University .
   Google Scholar
• Muentener , P. and Carey , S. 2010 . Infants' causal representations of state change events . Cognitive Psychology , 61 : 63 – 86 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muentener , P. and Lakusta , L. 2011 . The intention-to-CAUSE bias: Evidence from children's causal language . Cognition , 119 : 341 – 355 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naigles , L. 1990 . Children use syntax to learn verb meanings . Journal of Child Language , 17 : 357 – 374 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naigles , L. 1996 . The use of multiple frames in verb learning via syntactic bootstrapping . Cognition , 58 ( 2 ) : 221 – 251 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nazzi , T. and Gopnik , A. 2000 . A shift in children's use of perceptual and causal cues to categorization . Developmental Science , 3 : 389 – 396 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nazzi , T. and Gopnik , A. 2001 . Linguistic and cognitive abilities in infancy: when does language become a tool for categorization? . Cognition , 80 : B11 – B20 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearl , J. 2000 . Causality, models, reasoning, and inference , Cambridge , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Piaget , J. 1951 . Play, dreams and imitation in childhood , Edited by: Gattegno , C. and Hodgson , F. M. New York , NY : W. W. Norton .
   Google Scholar
• Piaget , J. 1954 . The construction of reality in the child , New York , NY : Basic Books .
   Google Scholar
• Pine , K. and Siegler , R. 2003 . The role of explanatory activity in increasing the generality of thinking , Tampa , FL : Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development .
   Google Scholar
• Pyers , J. 2003 . “ The expression of mental states in American Sign Language ” . In Crosslinguistic perspectives on sign language research , Edited by: Baker , A. , van den Bogaerde , B. and Crasborn , O. Hamburg , , Germany : Signum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Rahhal , T. , May , C. and Hasher , L. 2002 . Truth and character: Sources that older adults can remember . Psychological Science , 13 : 101 – 105 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson , E. J. and Whitcombe , E. L. 2003 . Children's suggestibility in relation to their understanding about sources of knowledge . Child Development , 74 : 48 – 62 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rovee-Collier , C. 1987 . “ Learning and memory in infancy ” . In Handbook of infant development , 2nd , Edited by: Osovsky , J. D. 98 – 148 . New York , NY : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Rumsfeld, D. (2002). Donald Rumsfeld press conference as US Secretary of Defense. [WWW Document]. http://www.defense.gov/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=2636 (http://www.defense.gov/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=2636)
   Google Scholar
• Salmon , W. 1998 . Causality and explanation , Oxford , , England : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Schacter , D. , Kaszniak , A. , Kihlstrom , J. and Valdiserri , M. 1991 . The relation between source memory and aging . Psychology & Aging , 6 : 559 – 568 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schick , B. , de Villiers , P. , de Villiers , J. G. and Hoffmeister , R. 2007 . Language and false belief reasoning: A study of deaf children . Child Development , 78 ( 2 ) : 376 – 398 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schult , C. and Wellman , H. M. 1997 . Explaining human movements and actions: Children's understanding of the limits of psychological explanation . Cognition , 62 : 291 – 324 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulz , L. and Bonawitz , E. B. 2007 . Serious fun: Preschoolers play more when evidence is confounded . Developmental Psychology , 43 : 1045 – 1050 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulz , L. , Bonawitz , E. B. and Griffiths , T. 2007 . Can being scared make your tummy ache? Naive theories, ambiguous evidence and preschoolers' causal inferences . Developmental Psychology , 43 : 1124 – 1139 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulz , L. , Goodman , N. , Tenenbaum , J. and Jenkins , A. 2008 . Going beyond the evidence: Preschoolers' inferences about abstract laws and anomalous data . Cognition , 109 ( 2 ) : 211 – 223 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulz , L. and Gopnik , A. 2004 . Causal learning across domains . Developmental Psychology , 40 : 162 – 176 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulz , L. , Hoopel , K. and Jenkins , A. 2008 . Judicious imitation: Young children imitate deterministic actions exactly, stochastic actions more variably . Child Development , 79 : 395 – 410 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulz , L. and Sommerville , J. 2006 . God does not play dice: Causal determinism and preschoolers' causal inferences . Child Development , 77 : 427 – 442 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulz , L. , Standing , H. and Bonawitz , E. 2008 . Word, thought, and deed: The role of object labels in children's inductive inferences and exploratory play . Developmental Psychology , 44 : 1266 – 1276 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scofield , J. and Behrend , D. 2008 . Learning words from reliable and unreliable speakers . Cognitive Development , 23 : 278 – 290 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shafto , P. and Goodman , N. 2008 . “ Teaching games: statistical sampling assumptions for learning in pedagogical situations ” . In Proceedings of the Thirtieth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society , 1632 – 1637 . Austin , TX : Cognitive Science Society .
   Google Scholar
• Shultz , T. 1982 . Rules of causal attribution . Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development , 47
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siegler , R. 1995 . How does change occur: A microgenetic study of number conservation . Cognitive Development , 28 : 225 – 273 .
   Google Scholar
• Simons , J. , Dodson , C. , Bell , D. and Schacter , D. 2004 . Specific and partial source memory: Effects of aging . Psychology and Aging , 19 : 689 – 694 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobel , D. 2004 . Exploring the coherence of young children's explanatory abilities: Evidence from generating counterfactuals . British Journal of Developmental Psychology , 22 : 37 – 58 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobel , D. M. and Kirkham , N. Z. 2006 . Blickets and babies: The development of causal reasoning in toddlers and infants . Developmental Psychology , 42 : 1103 – 1115 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sobel , D. M. , Tenenbaum , J. B. and Gopnik , A. 2004 . Children's causal inferences from indirect evidence: Backwards blocking and Bayesian reasoning in preschoolers . Cognitive Science , 28 : 303 – 333 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Southgate , V. , Senju , A. and Csibra , G. 2007 . Action anticipation through attribution of false belief by two-year-olds . Psychological Science , 18 : 587 – 592 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spelke , E. 2003 . “ What makes us smart? Core knowledge and natural language ” . In Language in mind: Advances in the investigation of language and thought , Edited by: Gentner , D. and Goldin-Meadow , S. Cambridge , MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Spelke , E. , Breinlinger , K. , Macomber , J. and Jacobsen , K. 1992 . Origins of knowledge . Psychological Review , 99 : 605 – 632 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spelke , E. , Lee , S. A. and Izard , V. 2010 . Beyond core knowledge: Natural geometry . Cognitive Science ,
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spencer , W. and Raz , N. 1995 . Effects of aging on memory for content and context: A meta-analysis . Psychology and Aging , 10 : 527 – 539 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spirtes , P. , Glymour , C. and Scheines , R. 1993 . Causation, prediction , and search , New York , NY : Springer .
   Google Scholar
• Suppes , P. 1970 . A probabilistic theory of causality , Amsterdam : North Holland .
   Google Scholar
• Taylor , M. , Esbensen , B. and Bennett , R. 1994 . Children's understanding of knowledge acquisition: The tendency for children to report that they have always known what they have just learned . Child Development , 65 : 1581 – 1604 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thorton , A. and McAuliffe , K. 2006 . Teaching in wild meerkats . Science , 313 : 227 – 229 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomasello , M. and Call , J. 1997 . Primate cognition , New York , NY : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Trabasso , T. and Suh , S. 1993 . Understanding text: Achieving explanatory coherence through online inferences and mental operations in working memory . Discourse Processes , 16 : 3 – 34 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vygotsky , L. 1934/1962 . Thought and language , Cambridge , MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Watson , J. S. and Ramey , C. T. 1987 . “ Reactions to response-contingent stimulation in early infancy ” . In Cognitive development in infancy , Edited by: Oates , J. and Sheldon , S. Hove , , England : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Wegesin , D. , Jacobs , D. , Zubin , N. , Ventura , P. and Stern , Y. 2000 . Source memory and encoding strategy in normal aging . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 22 : 455 – 464 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wellman , H. and Liu , D. 2007 . “ Causal reasoning as informed by the early development of explanations ” . In Causal learning: Psychology, philosophy, computation , Edited by: Gopnik , A. and Schulz , L. E. 261 – 279 . New York , NY : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Williams , J. and Lombrozo , T. 2010 . The role of explanation in discovery and generalization: Evidence from category learning . Cognitive Science , 34 : 776 – 806 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williamson , R. , Meltzoff , A. and Markman , E. 2008 . Prior experiences and perceived efficacy influence 3-year-olds' imitation . Developmental Psychology , 44 : 275 – 285 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wolff , P. 2003 . Direct causation in the linguistic coding and individuation of causal events . Cognition , 88 : 1 – 48 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woodward , J. 2003 . Making things happen: A theory of causal explanation , Oxford , , England : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar