Photobiological Risk Classification of Lamps and Lamp Systems—History and Rationale

REFERENCES

• [ACGIH] American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. 1972. TLV’s, threshold limit values for physical agents. Cincinnati (OH): ACGIH. 16 p.
   Google Scholar
• [ACGIH] American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. 1991. Documentation for the threshold limit values. 4th ed. Cincinnati (OH): ACGIH. 746 p.
   Google Scholar
• AMA Council on Physical Medicine. 1948. Acceptance of ultraviolet lamps for disinfection purposes, J Amer Med Assn. 137:1600–1603.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• [ANSI] American National Standards Institute. 1973. American national standard for the safe use of lasers. New York (NY). ANSI Z136.1–1973.
   Google Scholar
• [ANSI/IESNA] American National Standards Institute/Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. 1996a. Photobiological safety of lamps and lighting systems. New York (NY): IESNA. RP27.1. 27 p.
   Google Scholar
• [ANSI/IESNA] American National Standards Institute/Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. 1996b. Photobiological safety of lamps and lighting systems. New York (NY): IESNA. RP27.3. 17 p.
   Google Scholar
• [ANSI/IESNA] American National Standards Institute/Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. 2000a. Recommended practice on photobiological safety for lamps and lamp systems – measurement techniques. New York (NY): IESNA. RP27.2-00. 47 p.
   Google Scholar
• [ANSI/IESNA] American National Standards Institute/Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (ANSI/IESNA). 2000b. Photobiological Safety of Lamps and Lamp Systems – Measurement Techniques, RP27.2-00 [reaffirmed 2011]. New York, IESNA. 47 p.
   Google Scholar
• [ANSI/IESNA] American National Standards Institute/Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. 2007. Photobiological safety of lamps and lighting systems. New York (NY): IESNA. RP27.3-07. 17 p.
   Google Scholar
• Beardsley CW. 1984. The hydrolevel case, a retrospective. Mech Eng. 106(6):25–36.
   Google Scholar
• Beck WC, Heimburger RF. 1973. Illumination hazard in the operating room. Arch Surg. 107:560–562.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bergman, RS, Parham TG, McGowan TK. 1995. UV emissions from general lighting lamps. J Illum Eng Soc. 24(1):13–24.
   Google Scholar
• Bickford ED, Clark GW, Spears GR. 1974a. Measurement of ultraviolet irradiance from illuminants in terms of proposed public health standards. J Illum Eng Soc. 4:43–48.
   Google Scholar
• Bickford ED, Clark GW, Spears GR. 1974b. Measurement of ultraviolet irradiance from illuminants in terms of proposed public health standards. J Illum Eng Soc. 5(4):234–236.
   Google Scholar
• Birch-Hirshfeld A. 1904. Die wirkung der ultra-violetten strahlen auf das auge. [The effect of ultraviolet radiation on the eye]. Graefes Arch Ophthalmol. 8:468–562.
   Google Scholar
• Chaney EK, Sliney DH. 2005. Re-evaluation of the ultraviolet hazard action spectrum—the impact of spectral bandwidth. Health Phys. 89(4):322–332.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• [CIE] Commission International de l’Eclairage. 1999. Recommendation on photobiological safety of lamps—a review of standards. Vienna (Austria): CIE. Publication 134/3 CIE TC 6–38. 55 p.
   Google Scholar
• [CIE] Commission International de l’Eclairage. 2002. CIE standard S-009E-2002. Photobiological safety of lamps and lamp systems. Vienna (Austria): CIE. IEC64271-2006.
   Google Scholar
• Deaver DM, Davis J, Sliney DH. 1996. Vertical visual fields-of-view in outdoor daylight. Lasers Light Ophthalmol. 7(2/3):121–125.
   Google Scholar
• de Gruij FR. 1995. Action spectrum for photocarcinogenesis. Chap 17. Vol 139. in Garbe C. et al. (Eds.). Skin Cancer: Basic Science, Clinical Research and Treatment. New York. Springer. P 21-30.
   Google Scholar
• Diffey BL, Davis A. 1978. A new dosimeter for the measurement of natural ultraviolet radiation in the study of photodermatoses and drug photosensitivity. Phys Med Biol. 23(2):318–323.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DiLaura DL, Houser KW, Mistrick RG, Steffy GR, editors. 2011. The lighting handbook tenth edition: reference and application. New York (NY): The Illuminating Engineering Society. 1328 p.
   Google Scholar
• Dixon J. 1853. A new ophthalmoscope. Med Times Gazette (London). 7:379–380.
   Google Scholar
• El Ghissassi F, Baan R, Straif K, Grosse Y, Secretan B, Bouvard V, Benbrahim-Tallaa L, Guha N, Freeman C, Galichet L, et al. 2009. A review of human carcinogens—part D: radiation. Lancet Oncol. 10(8):751–752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• European Commission. 2011. Non-binding guide to good practice for implementing Directive 2006/25/EC artificial optical radiation. Catalog N: KE-30-10-384-EN-C.
   Google Scholar
• European Union. 2006. Directive 2006/25/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2006 on the minimum health and safety requirements regarding the exposure of workers to risks arising from physical agents (artificial optical radiation) (19th individual directive within the meaning of Article 16(1) of Directive 89/391/EEC). OJ L 114/38, 27 Apr 2006.
   Google Scholar
• Finsen NR. 1889. Über die Bedeutung der chemische Strahlen des Lichtes für Medicin und Biologie. [On the significance of the actinic rays of light for medicine and biology]. Leipzig (Germany): Vogel.
   Google Scholar
• Ham WT. 1989. The photopathology and nature of the blue-light and near-UV retinal lesion produced by lasers and other optical sources. In: Wolbarsht ML, editor. Laser applications in medicine and biology. New York (NY): Plenum Publishing Corp. 999 p.
   Google Scholar
• Ham WT, Mueller HA, Sliney DH. 1976. Retinal sensitivity to damage from short wavelength light. Nature. 260(5547):153–155.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Health Council of The Netherlands. 1979. Acceptable levels for micrometer radiation. Rijswijk (The Netherlands): Gezondheidsraad.
   Google Scholar
• Henderson AJ, LaGiusa FF, McGowan TK. 1991. Light sources and dye fading. Light Design Appl. 21(5):16–25.
   Google Scholar
• Higlett MP, O’Hagan JB, Khazova M. 2012. Safety of light emitting diodes in toys. J Radiol Prot. 32(1):51–72.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hillenkamp F. 1980. Interaction between laser radiation and biological systems. In: Hillenkamp F, Pratesi R, Sacchi CA, editors. Lasers in biology and medicine, NATO Advanced Study Institutes Series, Volume 34. London (UK): Plenum Press. pp. 37–68.
   Google Scholar
• Hochheimer BF, Calkins JL. 1977. The integrated radiance of flashbulbs. Opt Eng. 16:212–213.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyde JN. 1906. On the influence of light in the production of cancer of the skin. Am J Med Sci. 131:1–22.
   Google Scholar
• [ICNIRP] International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection. 1996. ICNIRP guidelines on UV radiation exposure limits. Health Phys. 71(6):978.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• [ICNIRP] International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection. 1997. Guidelines on limits of exposure for broad-band incoherent optical radiation (0.38 to 3 μm). Health Phys. 73(3):539–597.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• [ICNIRP] International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection. 2000. ICNIRP statement on light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes: implications for hazard assessment. Health Phys. 78(6):744–752.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• [ICNIRP] International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection. 2004. Guidelines on limits of exposure to ultraviolet radiation of wavelengths between 180 nm and 400 nm (incoherent optical radiation). Health Phys. 87(2):171–186.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• [ICNIRP] International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection. 2006. ICNIRP statement on far infrared radiation exposure. Health Physics. 91(6):630–645.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• [IEC] International Electrotechnical Commission. 1993. Safety of Laser Products – Part 1: Equipment Classification, Requirements and Users Guide. IEC, Geneva (Switzerland). IEC 660825-1:1993.
   Google Scholar
• [IEC] International Electrotechnical Commission. 2003. Electric toys. Geneva (Switzerland): IEC. IEC 62115:2003+A1:2004 +A2:2010. 82 p.
   Google Scholar
• [IEC] International Electrotechnical Commission. 2007. Safety of laser products—part 1: equipment classification and requirements. 2nd ed. Geneva (Switzerland): IEC. IEC 60825–1. 199 p.
   Google Scholar
• [IEC] International Electrotechnical Commission. 2009. Photobiological safety of lamps and lamp systems – Part 2: Guidance on manufacturing requirements relating to non-laser optical radiation safety. 1st ed. Geneva (Switzerland): IEC. IEC/TR 62471–2. 38 p.
   Google Scholar
• [IEC] International Electrotechnical Commission. 2014. Safety of laser products—part 1: equipment classification and requirements. 3rd ed. Geneva (Switzerland): IEC. IEC 60825–1.
   Google Scholar
• [IEC] International Electrotechnical Commission. 2015. Photobiological safety of lamps and lamp systems - Part 5: Image projectors. IEC 62471-5:2015. 51 p.
   Google Scholar
• [IRPA] International Radiation Protection Association, International Non-Ionizing Radiation Committee. 1985. Guidelines for limits of human exposure to laser radiation. Health Phys. 49(5):341–359, 54(5):573-575.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• [ISO] International Organization for Standardization. 2007. Ophthalmic instruments—fundamental requirements and test methods—part 2: light hazard protection. Geneva (Switzerland): ISO. 15004-2:2007. 37 p.
   Google Scholar
• Kaufman JE, Christensen JF, editors. 1972. IES lighting handbook. 5th ed. New York (NY) The Illumination Engineering Society.
   Google Scholar
• Landry RJ. 1980. Optical radiation measurements and their use in hazard evaluation, ocular effects of nonionizing radiation. Proc SPIE. 229:98–103.
   Google Scholar
• Landry RJ, Bostrom RG, Miller SA, Shi D, Sliney DH. 2011. Retinal phototoxicity: a review of standard methodology for evaluating retinal optical methodology for evaluating retinal optical radiation hazards. Health Phys. 100(4):417–434.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lanum JA. 1978. The damaging effects of light on the retina, empirical findings, theoretical and practical implications. Surv Ophthalmol. 22:221–249.
   Google Scholar
• Levin RE. 1999. Photobiological safety and risk – ANSI/IESNA RP-27 series. 1999. (in Matthes R, Sliney DH, editors) Measurements of optical radiation hazards—a reference book based on presentations given by health and safety experts on optical radiation hazards, NIST, Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA, 1–3 Sept 1998. Munich (Germany): ICNIRP/CIE Publications. p. 295–308. 762 p.
   Google Scholar
• Levin RE, Clark GW, Spears GR, Bickford ED. 1977. Ultraviolet radiation—considerations in interior lighting design—part 1. J Illum Eng Soc. 7:80–89.
   Google Scholar
• Lytle CD, Cyr WH, Beer JZ, Miller SA, James RH, Landry RJ, Jacobs ME, Kaczmarek RG, Sharkness CM, Gaylor D. 1993. An estimation of squamous cell carcinoma risk from ultraviolet radiation emitted by fluorescent lamps. Photodermatol Photo. 9(6):268–274.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matthes R, Sliney DH, editors. 1999. Measurements of optical radiation hazards—a reference book based on presentations given by health and safety experts on optical radiation hazards, NIST, Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA, 1–3 Sept 1998. Munich (Germany): ICNIRP/CIE-Publications.
   Google Scholar
• McKinlay AF, Harlen F, Whillock MJ. 1988. Hazards of optical radiation. Bristol (UK): Adam Hilger.
   Google Scholar
• McKinlay AF, Whillock MJ. 1987. Measurement of ultraviolet radiation from fluorescent lamps used for general lighting and other purposes in the UK. In: Passchier WF, Bosnjakovic BFM, editors. Human exposure to ultraviolet radiation: risk and regulations. Amsterdam (The Netherlands): Elsevier. p. 253–258.
   Google Scholar
• Nardell E, Vincent R, Sliney DH. 2013. Introduction, upper-room ultraviolet germicidal irradiation (UVGI) for air disinfection: a symposium in print. Photochem Photobiol. 89:764–769.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ness JW, Zwick H, Stuck BE, Lund DJ, Lund BJ, Molchany JW, Sliney DH. 2000. Retinal image motion during deliberate fixation: implications to laser safety for long duration viewing. Health Phys. 78(2):131–142.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. 1972. Criteria for a recommended standard, occupational exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Washington (DC): U.S. Department of Health Education and Welfare.
   Google Scholar
• Olsen RL, Sayre RM, Everett MA. 1966. Effect of anatomic location and time on ultraviolet erythema. Arch Dermatol. 93(2):211–215.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Parrish JA, Anderson RR, Urbach F, Pitts D. 1978. UV-A: biological effects of ultraviolet radiation with emphasis on human responses to long-wave ultraviolet. New York (NY): Plenum Press. 262 p.
   Google Scholar
• Passchier WF, Bosnjakovic BFM, editors. 1987. Human exposure to ultraviolet radiation: risks and regulations. New York (NY): Excerpta Medica Division, Elsevier Science Publishers. 600 p.
   Google Scholar
• Piltingsrud HV, Fong CW. 1978. An evaluation of ultraviolet radiation personnel hazards from selected 400-watt high intensity discharge lamps. Am Indus Hyg Assoc J. 39:406–413.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piltingsrud HV, Odland LT, Fong CW. 1976. An evaluation of fluorescent light sources for use in phototherapy of neonatal jaundice. Am Indus Hyg Assoc J. 36:437–444.
   Google Scholar
• Pitts DG, Cullen AP. 1981. Determination of infrared levels for acute ocular cataractogenesis. A Graefe Arch Klin Ophthalmol. 217:285–297.
   Google Scholar
• Pitts DG, Gibbons WD. 1973. Corneal light scatter measurements of ultraviolet radiation exposures. Am J Optom. 50:187–194.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reed NG, Wengraitis S, Sliney DH. 2009. Intercomparison of instruments used for safety and performance measurements of ultraviolet germicidal irradiation lamps. J Occup Environ Hyg. 6(5):289–297.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sanders CL, Jerome CW. 1973. Inter-laboratory comparison of measurements of the spectral irradiance from fluorescent and incandescent lamps: a report. Appl Opt. 12(9):2088–2098.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saunders RD, Ott WR. 1976. Spectral irradiance measurements: effect of UV-produced fluorescence in integrating spheres. Appl Opt. 15(4):827–828.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saunders RD, Ott WR, Bridges JM. 1978. Spectral irradiance standard for the ultraviolet: the deuterium lamp. Appl Opt. 17(4):593–600.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schulmeister K, Stuck BE, Lund DJ, Sliney DH. 2011. Review of thresholds and recommendations for revised exposure limits for laser and optical radiation for thermally induced retinal injury. Health Phys. 100(2):210–220.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sliney DH. 1972. The merits of an envelope action spectrum for ultraviolet radiation exposure criteria. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J. 33:644–653.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sliney DH. 1986. Physical factors in cataractogenesis: ambient ultraviolet radiation and temperature. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 27(5):781–789.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sliney DH. 2000. Ultraviolet radiation exposure criteria. Radiation Protection Dosimetry. 91(1–3):213–222.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sliney DH. 2013a. Balancing risk of eye irritation from UV-C with infection from bioaerosols, Photchem Photobiol. 89:770–776.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sliney DH. 2013b. The original rationale for a nominal ocular hazard distance. In International Laser Safety Conference Program & Proceedings, Orlando, Laser Institute of America. pp. 91–99.
   Google Scholar
• Sliney D, Aron-Rosa D, DeLori F, Fankhauser F, Landry R, Mainster M, Marshall J, Rassow B, Stuck B, Trokel S, West T, and Wolffe M. 2005. Adjustment of guidelines for exposure of the eye to optical radiation from ocular instruments: statement from a task group of the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection. Appl Opt. 44(11):2162–2176.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sliney DH, Campbell CE. 1994. Ophthalmic instrument safety standards. Lasers and Light in Ophthalmology. 6(4):207–215.
   Google Scholar
• Sliney DH, Freasier BC. 1973. The evaluation of optical radiation hazards. Appl Opt. 12:1–23.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sliney DH, Wolbarsht ML. 1980. Safety with lasers and other optical sources, a comprehensive handbook. New York (NY): Plenum Publishing Corp. 1000 p.
   Google Scholar
• Stamper DA, Lund DJ, Molchany JW, Stuck BE. 2002. Human pupil and eyelid response to intense laser light: implications for protection. Percept Motor Skill. 95( 3, Pt 1):775–782.
   Google Scholar
• Sykes SM, Robinson WG, Waxler M, Kuwarbara T. 1981. Damage to the monkey retina by broad spectrum fluorescent light. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 20(4):425–434.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor MW, Goldbar J, Murray JR. 1982. Dylux: an instant image photographic material suitable for UV laser beam diagnostics. Appl Opt. 21(1):4–5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tengroth B, editor. 1978. Current concepts in ergophthalmology. Proceedings of an International Congress, 1977, Stockholm, Sweden, Societas Ergopthalmologica Internationalis, 20–22 June 1978.
   Google Scholar
• Urbach F, editor. 1969. The biologic effects of ultraviolet radiation. New York (NY): Pergamon Press. 782 p.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 1970. Electronic product radiation and the health physicist. Rockville (MD): Bureau of Radiological Health. BRH/DEP 70–26. 464 p.
   Google Scholar
• US Department of Health Education and Welfare. 1985. Laser Product Performance Standard. Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations, Subchapter J, Part 1040. 21CFR1040.10.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Food and Drug Administration. 1977. Sunlamp products. Fed Reg. 42:65189–65193.
   Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Food and Drug Administration. 1979. Mercury vapor lamps; radiation safety performance standards. 21CFR1040.30. Fed Reg. 44:52191–52196.
   Google Scholar
• van der Hoeve J. 1920. Eye lesions produced by light rich in ultraviolet rays, senile cataract, senile degeneration of macula. Am J Ophthalmol. 3:178–194.
   Google Scholar
• Verhoeff FH, Bell L. 1916. The pathological effects of radiant energy on the eye—and experimental investigation. P Am Acad Arts Sci. 51:627–818.
   Google Scholar
• Vogt A. 1912. Experimentelle untersuchungenulier die durchlassigkeit der durchlichtingen des auges. [Experimental studies on the transmission of light through the eye]. Arch Ophthalmol. 81:155.
   Google Scholar
• Vogt A. 1919. Experimentelle Erzeugung von Katarakt durch isoliertes kurzwelliges Ultrarot, dem Rot beigemischt ist. [Experimental generation of cataract by isolated short-wavelength infrared radiation, mixed with red]. Klin Mbl Augenh. 63:230–231.
   Google Scholar
• Waxler M, Hitchens V, editors. 1986. Optical radiation and visual health. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press. 445 p.
   Google Scholar
• Weale RA. 1985. Human lenticular fluorescence and transmissivity, and their effects on vision. Exp Eye Res. 41(4):457–473.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Widmark J. 1889. Űber den Einfluss des Lichtes auf die Haut. [On the influence of light on the skin]. Hygiea. 3:1–23.
   Google Scholar
• Widmark J. 1891. Űber die Durchdringlichkeit der Augenmedien für ultraviolette Strahlung. [On the impact of ultraviolet radiation on the ocular media]. Archiv Anat Physiol. 14:46.
   Google Scholar
• [WHO] World Health Organization. 1982. Environmental health criteria no. 23, lasers and optical radiation, a joint publication of the United Nations Environmental Program, the International Radiation Protection Association and the World Health Organization. Geneva, (Switzerland): WHO. 152 p.
   Google Scholar
• [WHO] World Health Organization. 1994. Environmental health criteria no. 160: ultraviolet radiation [published under the joint sponsorship of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Labour Organisation and the International Commission on Non-Ionizing radiation].Geneva (Switzerland): WHO. 352 p.
   Google Scholar
• Zuclich ZA, Previc FA, Novar BJ, Edsall PR. 2005. Near-UV/blue light-induced fluorescence. J Biomed Opt. 10(4):044021-1 - 044021-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar