13,759
Views
0
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Review

Common questions and misconceptions about protein supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?

ORCID Icon, , , ORCID Icon, , ORCID Icon, , ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, , ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon, ORCID Icon & show all
Article: 2341903 | Received 14 Aug 2023, Accepted 07 Apr 2024, Published online: 16 Apr 2024

References

  • Campbell B, Kreider RB, Ziegenfuss T, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2007;4(1):1–348. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-4-8
  • Jäger R, Kerksick CM, Campbell BI, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017;14(1):20. doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0177-8
  • Antonio J, Candow DG, Forbes SC, et al. Effects of dietary protein on body composition in exercising individuals. Nutrients. 2020;12(6):12. doi: 10.3390/nu12061890
  • Cintineo HP, Arent MA, Antonio J, et al. Effects of protein supplementation on performance and recovery in resistance and endurance training. Front Nutr. 2018;5:83. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2018.00083
  • Antonio J. High-protein diets in trained individuals. Res Sports Med. 2019;27(2):195–203. doi: 10.1080/15438627.2018.1523167
  • Cuyul-Vasquez I, Pezo-Navarrete J, Vargas-Arriagada C, et al. Effectiveness of whey protein supplementation during resistance exercise training on skeletal muscle mass and strength in older people with Sarcopenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2023;15(15):15. doi: 10.3390/nu15153424
  • Nunes EA, Colenso-Semple L, McKellar SR, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of protein intake to support muscle mass and function in healthy adults. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2022;13(2):795–810. doi: 10.1002/jcsm.12922
  • Morton RW, Murphy KT, SR M, et al. A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults. Br J Sports Med. 2018;52(6):376–384. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2017-097608
  • Trommelen J, van Lieshout GAA, Nyakayiru J, et al. The anabolic response to protein ingestion during recovery from exercise has no upper limit in magnitude and duration in vivo in humans. Cell Reports Med. 2023;4(12):101324. doi: 10.1016/j.xcrm.2023.101324
  • Schoenfeld BJ, Aragon AA. How much protein can the body use in a single meal for muscle-building? Implications for daily protein distribution. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2018;15(1):10. doi: 10.1186/s12970-018-0215-1
  • Areta JL, Burke LM, Ross ML, et al. Timing and distribution of protein ingestion during prolonged recovery from resistance exercise alters myofibrillar protein synthesis. J Physiol. 2013;591(9):2319–2331. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2012.244897
  • Levey AS, Greene T, Sarnak MJ, et al. Effect of dietary protein restriction on the progression of kidney disease: long-term follow-up of the modification of diet in renal disease (MDRD) study. Am J Kidney Dis. 2006;48(6):879–888. doi: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2006.08.023
  • Rhee CM, Ahmadi SF, Kovesdy CP, et al. Low-protein diet for conservative management of chronic kidney disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trials. J Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle. 2018;9(2):235–245. doi: 10.1002/jcsm.12264
  • Watanabe S. Low-protein diet for the prevention of renal failure. Proc Jpn Acad Ser B Phys Biol Sci. 2017;93(1):1–9. doi: 10.2183/pjab.93.001
  • Zhu HG, Jiang ZS, Gong PY, et al. Efficacy of low-protein diet for diabetic nephropathy: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Lipids Health Dis. 2018;17(1):141. doi: 10.1186/s12944-018-0791-8
  • Martin WF, Armstrong LE, Rodriguez NR. Dietary protein intake and renal function. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2005;2(1):25. doi: 10.1186/1743-7075-2-25
  • Brandle E, Sieberth HG, Hautmann RE. Effect of chronic dietary protein intake on the renal function in healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1996;50:734–740.
  • Brenner BM, Meyer TW, Hostetter TH. Dietary protein intake and the progressive nature of kidney disease: the role of hemodynamically mediated glomerular injury in the pathogenesis of progressive glomerular sclerosis in aging, renal ablation, and intrinsic renal disease. N Engl J Med. 1982;307(11):652–659. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198209093071104
  • Metges CC, Barth CA. Metabolic consequences of a high dietary-protein intake in adulthood: assessment of the available evidence. J Nutr. 2000;130(4):886–889. doi: 10.1093/jn/130.4.886
  • Kamper AL, Strandgaard S. Long-term effects of high-protein diets on renal function. Annu Rev Nutr. 2017;37(1):347–369. doi: 10.1146/annurev-nutr-071714-034426
  • Jager R, Kerksick CM, Campbell BI, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017;14(1):20. doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0177-8
  • Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. Position of the academy of nutrition and dietetics, dietitians of Canada, and the American college of sports medicine: nutrition and athletic performance. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2016;116(3):501–528. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2015.12.006
  • Poortmans JR, Dellalieux O. Do regular high protein diets have potential health risks on kidney function in athletes? Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2000;10(1):28–38. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.10.1.28
  • Kerksick CM, Rasmussen CJ, Lancaster SL, et al. The effects of protein and amino acid supplementation on performance and training adaptations during ten weeks of resistance training. J Strength Cond Res. 2006;20(3):643–653. doi: 10.1519/00124278-200608000-00028
  • Lockwood CM, Roberts MD, Dalbo VJ, et al. Effects of hydrolyzed whey versus other whey protein supplements on the physiological response to 8 weeks of resistance exercise in college-aged males. J Am Coll Nutr. 2017;36(1):16–27. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2016.1140094
  • Lockwood CM, Moon JR, Tobkin SE, et al. Minimal nutrition intervention with high-protein/low-carbohydrate and low-fat, nutrient-dense food supplement improves body composition and exercise benefits in overweight adults: a randomized controlled trial. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2008;5(1):11. doi: 10.1186/1743-7075-5-11
  • Antonio J, Ellerbroek A, Silver T, et al. A high protein diet (3.4 g/kg/d) combined with a heavy resistance training program improves body composition in healthy trained men and women–a follow-up investigation. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2015;12(1):39. doi: 10.1186/s12970-015-0100-0
  • Antonio J, Ellerbroek A, Silver T, et al. The effects of a high protein diet on indices of health and body composition–a crossover trial in resistance-trained men. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2016;13(1):3. doi: 10.1186/s12970-016-0114-2
  • Antonio J, Ellerbroek A, Silver T, et al. A high protein diet has no harmful effects: a one-year crossover study in resistance-trained males. J Nutr Metab. 2016;2016:9104792. doi: 10.1155/2016/9104792
  • Antonio J, Peacock CA, Ellerbroek A, et al. The effects of consuming a high protein diet (4.4 g/kg/d) on body composition in resistance-trained individuals. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2014;11(1):19. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-11-19
  • Kerksick C, Thomas A, Campbell B, et al. Effects of a popular exercise and weight loss program on weight loss, body composition, energy expenditure and health in obese women. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2009;6(1):23. doi: 10.1186/1743-7075-6-23
  • Kerksick CM, Wismann-Bunn J, Fogt D, et al. Changes in weight loss, body composition and cardiovascular disease risk after altering macronutrient distributions during a regular exercise program in obese women. Nutr J. 2010;9(1):59. doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-9-59
  • Kreider RB, Rasmussen C, Kerksick CM, et al. A carbohydrate-restricted diet during resistance training promotes more favorable changes in body composition and markers of health in obese women with and without insulin resistance. Phys Sportsmed. 2011;39(2):27–40. doi: 10.3810/psm.2011.05.1893
  • Kreider RB, Serra M, Beavers KM, et al. A structured diet and exercise program promotes favorable changes in weight loss, body composition, and weight maintenance. J Am Diet Assoc. 2011;111(6):828–843. doi: 10.1016/j.jada.2011.03.013
  • Antonio J, Ellerbroek A. Case reports on well-trained bodybuilders: two years on a high protein diet. J Exerc Physiol Online. 2018;21.
  • Josse AR, Atkinson SA, Tarnopolsky MA, et al. Diets higher in dairy foods and dietary protein support bone health during diet- and exercise-induced weight loss in overweight and obese premenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012;97(1):251–260. doi: 10.1210/jc.2011-2165
  • Layman DK. Protein quantity and quality at levels above the RDA improves adult weight loss. J Am Coll Nutr. 2004;23(sup6):631S–636S. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2004.10719435
  • Layman DK, Boileau RA, Erickson DJ, et al. A reduced ratio of dietary carbohydrate to protein improves body composition and blood lipid profiles during weight loss in adult women. J Nutr. 2003;133(2):411–417. doi: 10.1093/jn/133.2.411
  • Layman DK, Evans E, Baum JI, et al. Dietary protein and exercise have additive effects on body composition during weight loss in adult women. J Nutr. 2005;135(8):1903–1910. doi: 10.1093/jn/135.8.1903
  • Longland TM, Oikawa SY, Mitchell CJ, et al. Higher compared with lower dietary protein during an energy deficit combined with intense exercise promotes greater lean mass gain and fat mass loss: a randomized trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2016;103(3):738–746. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.115.119339
  • Noakes M, Keogh JB, Foster PR, et al. Effect of an energy-restricted, high-protein, low-fat diet relative to a conventional high-carbohydrate, low-fat diet on weight loss, body composition, nutritional status, and markers of cardiovascular health in obese women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;81(6):1298–1306. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/81.6.1298
  • Skov AR, Toubro S, Bulow J, et al. Changes in renal function during weight loss induced by high vs low-protein low-fat diets in overweight subjects. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1999;23(11):1170–1177. doi: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801048
  • Parker B, Noakes M, Luscombe N, et al. Effect of a high-protein, high–monounsaturated fat weight loss diet on glycemic control and lipid levels in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2002;25(3):425–430. doi: 10.2337/diacare.25.3.425
  • Boden G, Sargrad K, Homko C, et al. Effect of a low-carbohydrate diet on appetite, blood glucose levels, and insulin resistance in obese patients with type 2 diabetes. Ann Intern Med. 2005;142(6):403–411. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-142-6-200503150-00006
  • Moller G, Rikardt Andersen J, Ritz C, et al. Higher protein intake is not associated with decreased kidney function in pre-diabetic older adults following a one-year intervention—A preview sub-study. Nutrients. 2018;10(1):10. doi: 10.3390/nu10010054
  • Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids http://www.iom.edu/CMS/3788/4576/4340.aspx.
  • FAO/WHO/UNU. Protein and amino acid requirements in human nutrition. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2002.
  • Nutrient reference values for Australia and New Zealand: macronutrient balance. 2014.
  • Hernandez-Alonso P, Salas-Salvado J, Ruiz-Canela M, et al. High dietary protein intake is associated with an increased body weight and total death risk. Clin Nutr. 2016;35(2):496–506. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2015.03.016
  • Halkjaer J, Olsen A, Overvad K, et al. Intake of total, animal and plant protein and subsequent changes in weight or waist circumference in European men and women: the Diogenes project. Int J Obes (Lond). 2011;35(8):1104–1113. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2010.254
  • Ankarfeldt MZ, Angquist L, Jakobsen MU, et al. Interactions of dietary protein and adiposity measures in relation to subsequent changes in body weight and waist circumference protein intake with progressive deterioration. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2014;22(9):2097–2103. doi: 10.1002/oby.20812
  • Bray GA, Smith SR, de Jonge L, et al. Effect of dietary protein content on weight gain, energy expenditure, and body composition during overeating: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2012;307(1):47–55. doi: 10.1001/jama.2011.1918
  • Ogilvie AR, Schlussel Y, Sukumar D, et al. Higher protein intake during caloric restriction improves diet quality and attenuates loss of lean body mass. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2022;30(7):1411–1419. doi: 10.1002/oby.23428
  • Moon J, Koh G. Clinical evidence and mechanisms of high-protein diet-induced weight loss. J Obes Metab Syndr. 2020;29(3):166–173. doi: 10.7570/jomes20028
  • Garthe I, Raastad T, Refsnes P, et al. Effect of two different weight-loss rates on body composition and strength and power-related performance in elite athletes. Int J Sport Nutr Exercise Metab. 2011;21(2):97–104. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.21.2.97
  • Pasiakos SM, Cao JJ, Margolis LM, et al. Effects of high-protein diets on fat-free mass and muscle protein synthesis following weight loss: a randomized controlled trial. FASEB J. 2013;27(9):3837–3847. doi: 10.1096/fj.13-230227
  • Rozenek R, Ward P, Long S, et al. Effects of high-calorie supplements on body composition and muscular strength following resistance training. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2002;42:340–347.
  • Hector AJ, Phillips SM. Protein recommendations for weight loss in elite athletes: a focus on body composition and performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2018;28(2):170–177. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0273
  • METTLER S, MITCHELL N, TIPTON KD. Increased protein intake reduces lean body mass loss during weight loss in athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010;42(2):326–337. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181b2ef8e
  • Roth C, Rettenmaier L, Behringer M. High-protein energy-restriction: effects on body composition, contractile properties, mood, and sleep in active young college students. Frontiers In Sports And Active Livin. 2021;3:683327. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2021.683327
  • Antonio J, Ellerbroek A. Case reports on well-trained bodybuilders: Two years on a high protein diet. J Exerc Physiol Online. 2018;21:14–24.
  • Antonio J, Ellerbroek A, Carson C. The effects of a high-protein diet on bone mineral density in exercise-trained women: a 1-year investigation. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2018;3(4):62. doi: 10.3390/jfmk3040062
  • Antonio J, Ellerbroek A, Evans C, et al. High protein consumption in trained women: bad to the bone? J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2018;15(1):6. doi: 10.1186/s12970-018-0210-6
  • Antonio J, Ellerbroek A, Silver T, et al. A high protein diet (3.4 g/kg/d) combined with a heavy resistance training program improves body composition in healthy trained men and women – a follow-up investigation. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2015;12(1):39. doi: 10.1186/s12970-015-0100-0
  • Antonio J, Ellerbroek A, Silver T, et al. The effects of a high protein diet on indices of health and body composition – a crossover trial in resistance-trained men. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2016;13(1):3. doi: 10.1186/s12970-016-0114-2
  • Spillane M, Willoughby DS. Daily overfeeding from protein and/or carbohydrate supplementation for eight weeks in conjunction with resistance training does not improve body composition and muscle strength or increase markers indicative of muscle protein synthesis and myogenesis in resistance-trained males. J Sports Sci Med. 2016;15:17–25.
  • Johannsen DL, Tchoukalova Y, Tam CS, et al. Effect of 8 weeks of overfeeding on ectopic fat deposition and insulin sensitivity: testing the “adipose tissue expandability” hypothesis. Diabetes Care. 2014;37(10):2789–2797. doi: 10.2337/dc14-0761
  • Ernersson A, Nystrom FH, Lindström T. Long-term increase of fat mass after a four week intervention with fast food based hyper-alimentation and limitation of physical activity. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2010;7(1):68. doi: 10.1186/1743-7075-7-68
  • Horton TJ, Drougas H, Brachey A, et al. Fat and carbohydrate overfeeding in humans: different effects on energy storage. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995;62(1):19–29. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/62.1.19
  • Leaf A, Antonio J. The effects of overfeeding on body composition: the role of macronutrient composition - a narrative review. Int J Exerc Sci. 2017;10(8):1275–1296.
  • Morton RW, Murphy KT, SR M, et al. A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults. Br J Sports Med. 2018;52(6):376–384. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2017-097608
  • Kraut JA, Coburn JW. Bone, acid, and osteoporosis. Mass Medical Soc. 1994;330(25):1821–1822. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199406233302510
  • Barzel US, Massey LK. Excess dietary protein can adversely affect bone. J Nutr. 1998;128(6):1051–1053. doi: 10.1093/jn/128.6.1051
  • Fenton TR, Lyon AW, Eliasziw M, et al. Meta-analysis of the effect of the acid-ash hypothesis of osteoporosis on calcium balance. J Bone Miner Res. 2009;24(11):1835–1840. doi: 10.1359/jbmr.090515
  • Fenton TR, Eliasziw M, Lyon AW, et al. Meta-analysis of the quantity of calcium excretion associated with the net acid excretion of the modern diet under the acid-ash diet hypothesis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;88(4):1159–1166. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/88.4.1159
  • Sale C, Elliott-Sale KJ. Nutrition and athlete bone health. Sports Med. 2019;49(S2):139–151. doi: 10.1007/s40279-019-01161-2
  • Kerstetter JE, KO O, Caseria DM, et al. The impact of dietary protein on calcium absorption and kinetic measures of bone turnover in women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90(1):26–31. doi: 10.1210/jc.2004-0179
  • Lanham-New SA. Fruit and vegetables: the unexpected natural answer to the question of osteoporosis prevention? Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;83(6):1254–1255. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/83.6.1254
  • Rizzoli R, Biver E, Bonjour J-P, et al. Benefits and safety of dietary protein for bone health-an expert consensus paper endorsed by the European Society for Clinical and Economical Aspects of Osteopororosis, Osteoarthritis, and Musculoskeletal Diseases and by the International Osteoporosis Foundation. Osteoporosis Int. 2018;29(9):1933–1948. doi: 10.1007/s00198-018-4534-5
  • Heaney RP. Bone health. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85(1):300S–303S. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/85.1.300S
  • Kohrt WM, Barry DW, Schwartz RS. Muscle forces or gravity: what predominates mechanical loading on bone? Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009;41(11):2050. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181a8c717
  • Hidayat K, Tong X, Rizzoli R, et al. The skeletal safety of milk-derived proteins: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Osteoporos Int. 2023;2023(11):1–13. doi: 10.1007/s00198-023-06840-5
  • Antonio J, Ellerbroek A, Evans C, et al. High protein consumption in trained women: bad to the bone? J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2018;15(1):6. doi: 10.1186/s12970-018-0210-6
  • Antonio J, Ellerbroek A, Carson C. The effects of a high-protein diet on bone mineral density in exercise-trained women: a 1-year investigation. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol. 2018;3(4):3. doi: 10.3390/jfmk3040062
  • Gorissen SH, Crombag JJ, Senden JM, et al. Protein content and amino acid composition of commercially available plant-based protein isolates. Amino Acids. 2018;50(12):1685–1695. doi: 10.1007/s00726-018-2640-5
  • van Vliet S, Burd NA, van Loon LJ. The skeletal muscle anabolic response to plant-versus animal-based protein consumption. J Nutr. 2015;145(9):1981–1991. doi: 10.3945/jn.114.204305
  • de Marco Castro E, Valli G, Buffière C, et al. Peripheral amino acid appearance is lower following plant protein fibre products, compared to whey protein and fibre ingestion, in healthy older adults despite optimised amino acid profile. Nutrients. 2022;15(1):35. doi: 10.3390/nu15010035
  • Gorissen SH, Horstman AM, Franssen R, et al. Ingestion of wheat protein increases in vivo muscle protein synthesis rates in healthy older men in a randomized trial. J Nutr. 2016;146(9):1651–1659. doi: 10.3945/jn.116.231340
  • Paddon-Jones D, Sheffield-Moore M, Katsanos CS, et al. Differential stimulation of muscle protein synthesis in elderly humans following isocaloric ingestion of amino acids or whey protein. Exp Gerontol. 2006;41(2):215–219. doi: 10.1016/j.exger.2005.10.006
  • Davies RW, Kozior M, Lynch AE, et al. The effect of fava bean (Vicia faba L.) protein ingestion on Myofibrillar protein Synthesis at Rest and after resistance exercise in healthy, young men and women: a randomised control trial. Nutrients. 2022;14(18):3688. doi: 10.3390/nu14183688
  • Pinckaers PJM, Kouw IWK, Gorissen SHM, et al. The muscle protein synthetic response to the ingestion of a plant-derived protein blend does not differ from an equivalent amount of milk protein in healthy young males. J Nutr. 2023;152(12):2734–2743. doi: 10.1093/jn/nxac222
  • Boirie Y, Dangin M, Gachon P, et al. Slow and fast dietary proteins differently modulate postprandial protein accretion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997;94(26):14930–14935. doi: 10.1073/pnas.94.26.14930
  • Gorissen SHM, Crombag JJR, Senden JMG, et al. Protein content and amino acid composition of commercially available plant-based protein isolates. Amino Acids. 2018;50(12):1685–1695. doi: 10.1007/s00726-018-2640-5
  • Berrazaga I, Micard V, Gueugneau M, et al. The role of the anabolic properties of plant- versus animal-based protein sources in supporting muscle mass maintenance: a critical review. Nutrients. 2019;11(8):11. doi: 10.3390/nu11081825
  • Tang JE, Moore DR, Kujbida GW, et al. Ingestion of whey hydrolysate, casein, or soy protein isolate: effects on mixed muscle protein synthesis at rest and following resistance exercise in young men. J Appl Physiol. 2009;107(3):987–992. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00076.2009
  • Bos C, Metges CC, Gaudichon C, et al. Postprandial kinetics of dietary amino acids are the main determinant of their metabolism after soy or milk protein ingestion in humans. J Nutr. 2003;133(5):1308–1315. doi: 10.1093/jn/133.5.1308
  • Yang Y, Churchward-Venne TA, Burd NA, et al. Myofibrillar protein synthesis following ingestion of soy protein isolate at rest and after resistance exercise in elderly men. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2012;9(1):57. doi: 10.1186/1743-7075-9-57
  • Hartman JW, Tang JE, Wilkinson SB, et al. Consumption of fat-free fluid milk after resistance exercise promotes greater lean mass accretion than does consumption of soy or carbohydrate in young, novice, male weightlifters. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86(2):373–381. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/86.2.373
  • Volek JS, Volk BM, Gómez AL, et al. Whey protein supplementation during resistance training augments lean body mass. J Am Coll Nutr. 2013;32(2):122–135. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2013.793580
  • Banaszek A, Townsend JR, Bender D, et al. The effects of whey vs. pea protein on physical adaptations following 8-weeks of high-intensity Functional training (HIFT): a pilot study. Sports. 2019;7(1):7. doi: 10.3390/sports7010012
  • Atherton P, Smith K. Muscle protein synthesis in response to nutrition and exercise. Journal Of Physiology. 2012;590(5):1049–1057. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2011.225003
  • Dangin M, Boirie Y, Guillet C, et al. Influence of the protein digestion rate on protein turnover in young and elderly subjects. J Nutr. 2002;132(10):3228s–3233s. doi: 10.1093/jn/131.10.3228S
  • Pennings B, Boirie Y, Senden JM, et al. Whey protein stimulates postprandial muscle protein accretion more effectively than do casein and casein hydrolysate in older men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93(5):997–1005. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.110.008102
  • Soop M, Nehra V, Henderson GC, et al. Coingestion of whey protein and casein in a mixed meal: demonstration of a more sustained anabolic effect of casein. Am. J Physiol.Endocrinol Meta. 2012;303(1):E152–162. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00106.2012
  • Walrand S, Zangarelli A, Guillet C, et al. Effect of fast dietary proteins on muscle protein synthesis rate and muscle strength in ad libitum-fed and energy-restricted old rats. Br J Nutr. 2011;106(11):1683–1690. doi: 10.1017/S0007114511002182
  • Kerksick CM, Jagim A, Hagele A, et al. Plant proteins and exercise: what role can plant proteins have in promoting adaptations to exercise? Nutrients. 2021;13(6):13. doi: 10.3390/nu13061962
  • Salles J, Guillet C, Le Bacquer O, et al. Pea proteins have anabolic effects comparable to milk proteins on whole body protein retention and muscle protein metabolism in old rats. Nutrients. 2021;13(12):4234. doi: 10.3390/nu13124234
  • Oikawa SY, Bahniwal R, Holloway TM, et al. Potato protein isolate stimulates muscle protein synthesis at rest and with resistance exercise in young women. Nutrients. 2020;12(5):1235. doi: 10.3390/nu12051235
  • Pinckaers PJM, Kouw IWK, Hendriks FK, et al. No differences in muscle protein synthesis rates following ingestion of wheat protein, milk protein, and their protein blend in healthy, young males. Br J Nutr. 2021;126(12):1832–1842. doi: 10.1017/S0007114521000635
  • Tipton K, Gurkin B, Matin S, et al. Nonessential amino acids are not necessary to stimulate net muscle protein synthesis in healthy volunteers. J Nutr Biochem. 1999;10(2):89–95. doi: 10.1016/S0955-2863(98)00087-4
  • Paddon-Jones D, Sheffield-Moore M, Katsanos CS, et al. Differential stimulation of muscle protein synthesis in elderly humans following isocaloric ingestion of amino acids or whey protein. Exp Gerontol. 2006;41(2):215–219. doi: 10.1016/j.exger.2005.10.006
  • Phillips SM, Chevalier S, Leidy HJ. Protein “requirements” beyond the RDA: implications for optimizing health. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2016;41(5):565–572. doi: 10.1139/apnm-2015-0550
  • Phillips SM, Van Loon LJ. Dietary protein for athletes: from requirements to optimum adaptation. Food, Nutrition Sports Performance III. 2013;29(sup1):29–38. doi: 10.1080/02640414.2011.619204
  • Neufingerl N, Eilander A. Nutrient intake and status in adults consuming plant-based diets compared to meat-eaters: a systematic review. Nutrients. 2021;14(1):14. doi: 10.3390/nu14010029
  • Clarys P, Deliens T, Huybrechts I, et al. Comparison of nutritional quality of the vegan, vegetarian, semi-vegetarian, pesco-vegetarian and omnivorous diet. Nutrients. 2014;6(3):1318–1332. doi: 10.3390/nu6031318
  • Baroni L, Pelosi E, Giampieri F, et al. The VegPlate for sports: a plant-based food guide for athletes. Nutrients. 2023;15(7):15. doi: 10.3390/nu15071746
  • Rogerson D. Vegan diets: practical advice for athletes and exercisers. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017;14(1):36. doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0192-9
  • Babault N, Païzis C, Deley G, et al. Pea proteins oral supplementation promotes muscle thickness gains during resistance training: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial vs. Whey protein. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2015;12(1):3. doi: 10.1186/s12970-014-0064-5
  • Brown EC, RA D, Babaknia A, et al. Soy versus whey protein bars: effects on exercise training impact on lean body mass and antioxidant status. Nutr J. 2004;3(1):22. doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-3-22
  • Candow DG, Burke NC, Smith-Palmer T, et al. Effect of whey and soy protein supplementation combined with resistance training in young adults. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2006;16(3):233–244. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.16.3.233
  • Denysschen CA, Burton HW, Horvath PJ, et al. Resistance training with soy vs whey protein supplements in hyperlipidemic males. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2009;6(1):8. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-6-8
  • Joy JM, Lowery RP, Wilson JM, et al. The effects of 8 weeks of whey or rice protein supplementation on body composition and exercise performance. Nutr J. 2013;12(1):86. doi: 10.1186/1475-2891-12-86
  • Lamb DA, Moore JH, Smith MA, et al. The effects of resistance training with or without peanut protein supplementation on skeletal muscle and strength adaptations in older individuals. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2020;17(1):66. doi: 10.1186/s12970-020-00397-y
  • Moon JM, Ratliff KM, Blumkaitis JC, et al. Effects of daily 24-gram doses of rice or whey protein on resistance training adaptations in trained males. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2020;17(1):60. doi: 10.1186/s12970-020-00394-1
  • Reidy PT, Borack MS, Markofski MM, et al. Protein supplementation has minimal effects on muscle adaptations during resistance exercise training in young men: a double-blind randomized clinical trial. J Nutr. 2016;146(9):1660–1669. doi: 10.3945/jn.116.231803
  • Mobley CB, Haun CT, Roberson PA, et al. Effects of whey, soy or leucine supplementation with 12 weeks of resistance training on strength, body composition, and skeletal muscle and adipose tissue histological attributes in college-aged males. Nutrients. 2017;9(9):9. doi: 10.3390/nu9090972
  • Lynch HM, Buman MP, Dickinson JM, et al. No significant differences in muscle growth and strength development when consuming soy and whey protein supplements matched for leucine following a 12 week resistance training program in men and women: a randomized trial. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17(11):17. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17113871
  • Hevia-Larraín V, Gualano B, Longobardi I, et al. High-protein plant-based diet versus a protein-matched omnivorous diet to support resistance training adaptations: a comparison between habitual vegans and omnivores. Sports Med. 2021;51(6):1317–1330. doi: 10.1007/s40279-021-01434-9
  • Thomson RL, Brinkworth GD, Noakes M, et al. Muscle strength gains during resistance exercise training are attenuated with soy compared with dairy or usual protein intake in older adults: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Nutr. 2016;35:27–33. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2015.01.018
  • Lynch H, Johnston C, Wharton C. Plant-based diets: considerations for environmental impact, protein quality, and exercise performance. Nutrients. 2018;10(12):10. doi: 10.3390/nu10121841
  • Drewnowski A. Adjusting for protein quality by food source may affect nutrient density metrics. Nutr Rev. 2020;79(10):1134–1144. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuaa117
  • Peanut butter, creamy. 2022 ed. FoodData Central: USDA; 2019.
  • Cheese, cheddar. 2019 ed. FoodData Central: USDA; 2019.
  • Chicken, broiler or fryers, breast, skinless, boneless, meat only, cooked, braised. Nutrition Facts Search Tool. Food Data Central: USDA; 2019.
  • Antonio J, Axelrod C, Ellerbroek A, et al. Effects of 5-day heat acclimation on workers wearing personal protective clothing. J Exerc Nutr. 2018;1(1):1.
  • Aragon AA, Schoenfeld BJ, Wildman R, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: diets and body composition. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017;14(1):16. doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0174-y
  • Marinangeli CP, House JD. Potential impact of the digestible indispensable amino acid score as a measure of protein quality on dietary regulations and health. Nutr Rev. 2017;75(8):658–667. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nux025
  • Wolfe RR, Kim I-Y, Church DD, et al. Whole-body protein kinetic models to quantify the anabolic response to dietary protein consumption. Clin Nutri Open Sci. 2021;36:78–90. doi: 10.1016/j.nutos.2021.02.006
  • Sans P, Combris P. World meat consumption patterns: An overview of the last fifty years (1961-2011). Meat Sci. 2015;109:106–111. doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2015.05.012
  • USDA. FoodData Central. Washington, D.C. United States of America: United States Department of Agriculture; 2023.
  • Food and Agricultural Organization. FAOSTAT Statistical Database. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2022.
  • Cosgrove M, Flynn A, Kiely M. Consumption of red meat, white meat and processed meat in Irish adults in relation to dietary quality. Br J Nutr. 2005;93(6):933–942. doi: 10.1079/BJN20051427
  • Micha R, Wallace SK, Mozaffarian D. Red and processed meat consumption and risk of incident coronary heart disease, stroke, and diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Circulation. 2010;121(21):2271–2283. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.924977
  • Lecerf JM, de Lorgeril M. Dietary cholesterol: from physiology to cardiovascular risk. Br J Nutr. 2011;106:6–14. doi: 10.1017/S0007114511000237
  • Siri-Tarino PW, Sun Q, Hu FB, et al. Meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies evaluating the association of saturated fat with cardiovascular disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010;91(3):535–546. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.27725
  • Adeyeye SAO. Heterocyclic amines and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in cooked meat products: a review. Polycyclic Aromatic Comp. 2018;40(5):1557–1567. doi: 10.1080/10406638.2018.1559208
  • Diggs DL, Huderson AC, Harris KL, et al. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and digestive tract cancers: a perspective. J Environ Sci Health C Environ Carcinog Ecotoxicol Rev. 2011;29(4):324–357. doi: 10.1080/10590501.2011.629974
  • Moorthy B, Chu C, Carlin DJ. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: from metabolism to lung cancer. Toxicol Sci. 2015;145(1):5–15. doi: 10.1093/toxsci/kfv040
  • Choi Y, Song S, Song Y, et al. Consumption of red and processed meat and esophageal cancer risk: meta-analysis. World J Gastroenterol. 2013;19:1020–1029. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v19.i7.1020
  • Chan DS, Lau R, Aune D, et al. Red and processed meat and colorectal cancer incidence: meta-analysis of prospective studies. PLoS One. 2011;6(6):e20456. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020456
  • Lippi G, Mattiuzzi C, Cervellin G. Meat consumption and cancer risk: a critical review of published meta-analyses. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. 2016;97:1–14. doi: 10.1016/j.critrevonc.2015.11.008
  • Larsson SC, Orsini N, Wolk A. Processed meat consumption and stomach cancer risk: a meta-analysis. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2006;98(15):1078–1087. doi: 10.1093/jnci/djj301
  • Norat T, Lukanova A, Ferrari P, et al. Meat consumption and colorectal cancer risk: dose-response meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Int J Cancer. 2002;98(2):241–256. doi: 10.1002/ijc.10126
  • Farvid MS, Sidahmed E, Spence ND, et al. Consumption of red meat and processed meat and cancer incidence: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Eur J Epidemiol. 2021;36(9):937–951. doi: 10.1007/s10654-021-00741-9
  • Han MA, Zeraatkar D, Guyatt GH, et al. Reduction of red and processed meat intake and cancer mortality and incidence: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Ann Internal Med. 2019;171(10):711–720. doi: 10.7326/M19-0699
  • Hur SJ, Yoon Y, Jo C, et al. Effect of dietary red meat on colorectal cancer risk—A review. Comp Rev Food Sci Food Safe. 2019;18(6):1812–1824. doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12501
  • Yun Z, Nan M, Li X, et al. Processed meat, red meat, white meat, and digestive tract cancers: a two-sample Mendelian randomization study. Front Nutr. 2023;10:1078963. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1078963
  • Wu K, Liu L, Shu T, et al. The relationship between processed meat, red meat, and risk of types of cancer: a Mendelian randomization study. Front Nutr. 2022;9:942155. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.942155
  • Sandhu MS, White IR, K M. Systematic review of the prospective cohort studies on meat consumption and colorectal cancer risk: a meta-analytical approach. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2001;10:439–446.
  • Damigou E, Kosti RI, Panagiotakos DB. White meat consumption and cardiometabolic risk factors: a review of recent prospective cohort studies. Nutrients. 2022;14(24):5213. doi: 10.3390/nu14245213
  • Kim SR, Kim K, Lee SA, et al. Effect of red, processed, and white meat consumption on the risk of gastric cancer: an overall and dose–response meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2019;11(4):11. doi: 10.3390/nu11040826
  • Salehi M, Moradi-Lakeh M, Salehi MH, et al. Meat, fish, and esophageal cancer risk: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Nutr Rev. 2013;71(5):257–267. doi: 10.1111/nure.12028
  • Wu S, Feng B, Li K, et al. Fish consumption and colorectal cancer risk in humans: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am j Med. 2012;125(6):551–559 e555. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2012.01.022
  • Dianatinasab M, Wesselius A, de Loeij T, et al. The association between meat and fish consumption and bladder cancer risk: a pooled analysis of 11 cohort studies. Eur J Epidemiol. 2021;36(8):781–792. doi: 10.1007/s10654-021-00762-4
  • Iqbal R, Dehghan M, Mente A, et al. Associations of unprocessed and processed meat intake with mortality and cardiovascular disease in 21 countries [prospective urban rural epidemiology (PURE) study]: a prospective cohort study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2021;114(3):1049–1058. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/nqaa448
  • Layman DK. Dietary guidelines should reflect new understandings about adult protein needs. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2009;6(1):12. doi: 10.1186/1743-7075-6-12
  • Lowery LMA. Jose: Dietary protein and resistance exercise. CRC Press; 2012.
  • Trumbo P, Schlicker S, Yates AA, et al. Food, nutrition board of the institute of medicine TNA: dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein and amino acids. J Am Diet Assoc. 2002;102(11):1621–1630. doi: 10.1016/S0002-8223(02)90346-9
  • Rand WM, Pellett PL, Young VR. Meta-analysis of nitrogen balance studies for estimating protein requirements in healthy adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;77(1):109–127. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/77.1.109
  • Elango R, Humayun MA, Ball RO, et al. Evidence that protein requirements have been significantly underestimated. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2010;13(1):52–57. doi: 10.1097/MCO.0b013e328332f9b7
  • Humayun MA, Elango R, Ball RO, et al. Reevaluation of the protein requirement in young men with the indicator amino acid oxidation technique. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86(4):995–1002. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/86.4.995
  • Weiler M, Hertzler SR, Dvoretskiy S. Is it time to reconsider the U.S. Recommendations for dietary protein and amino acid intake? Nutrients. 2023;15(4):15. doi: 10.3390/nu15040838
  • Vieux F, Remond D, Peyraud JL, et al. Approximately half of total protein intake by adults must be animal-based to meet nonprotein, nutrient-based recommendations, with variations due to age and sex. J Nutr. 2022;152(11):2514–2525. doi: 10.1093/jn/nxac150
  • Abbas M, Cori A, Cordey S, et al. Reconstruction of transmission chains of SARS-CoV-2 amidst multiple outbreaks in a geriatric acute-care hospital: a combined retrospective epidemiological and genomic study. Elife. 2022;11. doi: 10.7554/eLife.76854
  • Tagawa R, Watanabe D, Ito K, et al. Dose–response relationship between protein intake and muscle mass increase: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Nutr Rev. 2021;79:66–75. doi: 10.1093/nutrit/nuaa104
  • Paddon-Jones D, Campbell WW, Jacques PF, et al. Protein and healthy aging. Am J Clin Nutr. 2015;101(6):1339S–1345S. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.114.084061
  • Houston DK, Nicklas BJ, Ding J, et al. Dietary protein intake is associated with lean mass change in older, community-dwelling adults: the health, aging, and body composition (Health ABC) study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;87(1):150–155. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/87.1.150
  • Asp ML, Richardson JR, Collene AL, et al. Dietary protein and beef consumption predict for markers of muscle mass and nutrition status in older adults. J Nutr Health Aging. 2012;16(9):784–790. doi: 10.1007/s12603-012-0064-6
  • Traylor DA, Gorissen SHM, Phillips SM. Perspective: protein requirements and optimal intakes in aging: are we ready to recommend more than the recommended daily allowance? Adv Nutr. 2018;9(3):171–182. doi: 10.1093/advances/nmy003
  • Esmarck B, Andersen JL, Olsen S, et al. Timing of postexercise protein intake is important for muscle hypertrophy with resistance training in elderly humans. J Physiol. 2001;535(1):301–311. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.00301.x
  • Rasmussen BB, Tipton KD, Miller SL, et al. An oral essential amino acid-carbohydrate supplement enhances muscle protein anabolism after resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol. 2000;88(2):386–392. doi: 10.1152/jappl.2000.88.2.386
  • Burd NA, West DW, Moore DR, et al. Enhanced amino acid sensitivity of myofibrillar protein synthesis persists for up to 24 h after resistance exercise in young Men1–3. J Nutr. 2011;141(4):568–573. doi: 10.3945/jn.110.135038
  • Wall BT, Burd NA, Franssen R, et al. Presleep protein ingestion does not compromise the muscle protein synthetic response to protein ingested the following morning. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2016;311(6):E964–E973. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00325.2016
  • Tipton KD, Elliott TA, Cree MG, et al. Stimulation of net muscle protein synthesis by whey protein ingestion before and after exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2007;292(1):E71–E76. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00166.2006
  • Candow DG, Chilibeck PD, Facci M, et al. Protein supplementation before and after resistance training in older men. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2006;97(5):548–556. doi: 10.1007/s00421-006-0223-8
  • Van Wijck K, Lenaerts K, Van Loon LJ, et al. Exercise-induced splanchnic hypoperfusion results in gut dysfunction in healthy men. PLoS One. 2011;6(7):e22366. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0022366
  • Breen L, Philp A, Witard OC, et al. The influence of carbohydrate–protein co‐ingestion following endurance exercise on myofibrillar and mitochondrial protein synthesis. J Physiol. 2011;589(16):4011–4025. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2011.211888
  • Moore DR, Camera DM, Areta JL, et al. Beyond muscle hypertrophy: why dietary protein is important for endurance athletes. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2014;39(9):987–997. doi: 10.1139/apnm-2013-0591
  • Cintineo HP, Arent MA, Antonio J, et al. Effects of protein supplementation on performance and recovery in resistance and endurance training. Front Nutr. 2018;5:83. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2018.00083
  • Kephart WC, Wachs TD, Mac Thompson R, et al. Ten Weeks of branched-chain amino acid supplementation improves select performance and immunological variables in trained cyclists. Amino Acids. 2016;48(3):779–789. doi: 10.1007/s00726-015-2125-8
  • Blomstrand E. Amino acids and central fatigue. Amino Acids. 2001;20(1):25–34. doi: 10.1007/s007260170063
  • Stearns RL, Emmanuel H, Volek JS, et al. Effects of ingesting protein in combination with carbohydrate during exercise on endurance performance: a systematic review with meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res. 2010;24(8):2192–2202. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181ddfacf
  • McLellan TM, Pasiakos SM, Lieberman HR. Effects of protein in combination with carbohydrate supplements on acute or repeat endurance exercise performance: a systematic review. Sports Med. 2014;44(4):535–550. doi: 10.1007/s40279-013-0133-y
  • Leiper J. Intestinal water absorption-implications for the formulation of rehydration solutions. Int J Sports Med. 1998;19(S 2):S129–S132. doi: 10.1055/s-2007-971977
  • Huang W-C, Chang Y-C, Chen Y-M, et al. Whey protein improves marathon-induced injury and exercise performance in elite track runners. Int J Med Sci. 2017;14(7):648. doi: 10.7150/ijms.19584
  • Poulios A, Fatouros IG, Mohr M, et al. Post-game high protein intake may improve recovery of football-specific performance during a congested game fixture: results from the PRO-FOOTBALL study. Nutrients. 2018;10(4):494. doi: 10.3390/nu10040494
  • Gleeson M. Immune function in sport and exercise. J Appl Physiol. 2007;103(2):693–699. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00008.2007
  • Witard OC, Turner JE, Jackman SR, et al. High-intensity training reduces CD8+ T-cell redistribution in response to exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2012;44(9):1689–1697. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e318257d2db
  • Witard OC, Turner JE, Jackman SR, et al. High dietary protein restores overreaching induced impairments in leukocyte trafficking and reduces the incidence of upper respiratory tract infection in elite cyclists. Brain Behav Immun. 2014;39:211–219. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2013.10.002
  • Rowlands DS, Thomson JS, Timmons BW, et al. Transcriptome and translational signaling following endurance exercise in trained skeletal muscle: impact of dietary protein. Physiol Genomics. 2011;43(17):1004–1020. doi: 10.1152/physiolgenomics.00073.2011
  • Helms ER, Aragon AA, Fitschen PJ. Evidence-based recommendations for natural bodybuilding contest preparation: nutrition and supplementation. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2014;11(1):20. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-11-20
  • Pasiakos SM, Cao JJ, Margolis LM, et al. Effects of high-protein diets on fat-free mass and muscle protein synthesis following weight loss: a randomized controlled trial. FASEB J. 2013;27(9):3837–3847. doi: 10.1096/fj.13-230227
  • Cermak NM, Res PT, de Groot LC, et al. Protein supplementation augments the adaptive response of skeletal muscle to resistance-type exercise training: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;96(6):1454–1464. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.112.037556
  • Pasiakos SM, TM M, Lieberman HR. The effects of protein supplements on muscle mass, strength, and aerobic and anaerobic power in healthy adults: a systematic review. Sports Med. 2015;45(1):111–131. doi: 10.1007/s40279-014-0242-2
  • Ferrando AA, Wolfe RR, Hirsch KR, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: effects of essential amino acid supplementation on exercise and performance. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2023;20(1):2263409. doi: 10.1080/15502783.2023.2263409
  • Tipton KD, Gurkin BE, Matin S, et al. Nonessential amino acids are not necessary to stimulate net muscle protein synthesis in healthy volunteers. The Journal Of Nutritional Biochemistry. 1999;10(2):89–95. doi: 10.1016/S0955-2863(98)00087-4
  • Paddon-Jones D, Sheffield-Moore M, Zhang XJ, et al. Amino acid ingestion improves muscle protein synthesis in the young and elderly. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2004;286(3):E321–328. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00368.2003
  • Biolo G, Maggi SP, Williams BD, et al. Increased rates of muscle protein turnover and amino acid transport after resistance exercise in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 1995;268(3):E514–520. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.1995.268.3.E514
  • Sheffield-Moore M, Yeckel CW, Volpi E, et al. Postexercise protein metabolism in older and younger men following moderate-intensity aerobic exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2004;287(3):E513–522. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00334.2003
  • Biolo G, Tipton KD, Klein S, et al. An abundant supply of amino acids enhances the metabolic effect of exercise on muscle protein. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 1997;273(1):E122–129. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.1997.273.1.E122
  • Churchward-Venne TA, Burd NA, Phillips SM. Nutritional regulation of muscle protein synthesis with resistance exercise: strategies to enhance anabolism. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2012;9(1):40. doi: 10.1186/1743-7075-9-40
  • Moore DR, Robinson MJ, Fry JL, et al. Ingested protein dose response of muscle and albumin protein synthesis after resistance exercise in young men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;89(1):161–168. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2008.26401
  • Witard OC, Jackman SR, Breen L, et al. Myofibrillar muscle protein synthesis rates subsequent to a meal in response to increasing doses of whey protein at rest and after resistance exercise. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014;99(1):86–95. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.112.055517
  • Macnaughton LS, Wardle SL, Witard OC, et al. The response of muscle protein synthesis following whole-body resistance exercise is greater following 40 g than 20 g of ingested whey protein. Physiol Rep. 2016;4(15):4. doi: 10.14814/phy2.12893
  • Gwin JA, Church DD, Hatch-McChesney A, et al. Essential amino acid-enriched whey enhances post-exercise whole-body protein balance during energy deficit more than iso-nitrogenous whey or a mixed-macronutrient meal: a randomized, crossover study. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2021;18(1):4. doi: 10.1186/s12970-020-00401-5
  • Gwin JA, Church DD, Hatch-McChesney A, et al. Effects of high versus standard essential amino acid intakes on whole-body protein turnover and mixed muscle protein synthesis during energy deficit: a randomized, crossover study. Clin Nutr. 2021;40(3):767–777. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2020.07.019